Studying the experimental behavioral reactions of a person's mental organization to external stimuli.

The incentives that were originally studied by organizational behavior included the illumination of the workplace, wages, and various working conditions.

At the end of the 20th century, organizational behavior as a discipline gradually moves away from behavioral attitudes, focusing its attention on systemic and collective effects in the organization, corporate culture phenomena.

Organizational behavior as a discipline must be distinguished from:

organizational development, which focuses on the organization as a whole,
personnel management, focused on the creation of organizational technologies for the development of employees,
management - a discipline that systematizes various models and management tools.

Organizational Behavior Research Methods

Polls- interviews, questioning, testing - measuring the level of satisfaction with work, the organizational climate of the team; interviews may also be conducted by telephone.
Collection fixed information - the study of documents that exist in the organization and regulate the activities of employees of groups (charter of the organization, corporate code, contracts, job descriptions).
Observation- study of the situation, the state of the workplace, the appearance of employees in accordance with the requirements of organizational culture.
Experiments- conducting laboratory or natural experiments.
Internet using.

Concept and types of organization

The concept of organization has several meanings. All planned and implemented actions of an individual, their results, also express the essence of the organization. Thus, the organization is:

social process;
specific social object;
control function .

Thus, an organization is a coordinated entity consisting of at least two people who work and interact to achieve a common goal.

Depending on the method of social organization, they distinguish formal and informal organizations.

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See what "Organizational Behavior" is in other dictionaries:

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR- (English organization behavior) the name of the academic discipline, which covers a wide range of issues related to the behavior of people and groups in organizations. It accumulates experience in practical management, management consulting; in… … Great Psychological Encyclopedia

The totality of actions and deeds of an individual for his adaptation to the conditions and requirements of the environment. Depending on the attitude to the norms of behavior and values of the organization, four types of organizational behavior are distinguished: the individual accepts the norms ... ... Glossary of business terms

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR- 1. Individual and collective forms of behavior of people included in the structure social organization. 2. The behavior of a social organization that acts in the external environment as an integral association of people, an indivisible subject of public relations and ... ... Sociology: Encyclopedia

It is necessary to check the quality of the translation and bring the article in line with the stylistic rules of Wikipedia. You can help ... Wikipedia

- (Eng. Edinburgh Business School, EBS) profile economic educational institution; a structural subdivision of Heriot Watt University. The school was founded in 1990 by Heriot Waltt University, of which it is ... ... Wikipedia

Behaviorism (from the English behavior “behavior”, another pronunciation: “bi hei viorism” with two accents) is a direction in psychology that explains human behavior. The program in this direction was proclaimed in 1913 by the American ... ... Wikipedia

Books

Organizational Behavior, S. D. Reznik, I. A. Igoshina, O. I. Shesternina. The manual has been prepared for methodological support practical exercises course "Organizational Behavior" and contains a set of business games, tests and specific situations for the development ...

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1. SUBJECT, OBJECT AND TASKS OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Organizational behavior is a scientific discipline that deals with the study of the behavior of working people and how they carry out activities within certain organizational structures, or organizations.

Organizational behavior is the systematic, scientific analysis of individuals, groups, and organizations in order to understand, predict, and improve the individual performance and functioning of an organization. The study of this discipline provides a set of tools in the form of concepts and theories that help people understand, analyze and describe what happens in organizations and explain why it happens.

If psychology itself is focused on the analysis of human behavior in general, then organizational behavior is addressed to its special form - the behavior of a working person, which in most cases is carried out within a certain organization. The need for such a study is due to the fact that the association of people into groups makes significant adjustments to their personal behavior. Individuals placed in certain organizational situations necessarily behave differently than if they were outside the organization.

This is primarily due to the fact that the organizational system itself begins to exert a strong influence on people, which changes and reorients the tendencies of their behavior. A person must reckon with the norms of behavior existing in the group, rules, traditions, customs, certain attitudes, as well as with collective thought, will, etc.

In modern conditions, knowledge of the basics of organizational behavior allows us to solve the following tasks:

· more fully reveal the potential of the organization's personnel and make a choice of directions for improving its activities, using modern technologies for these purposes;

to develop such projects of organizational systems that would meet the criteria that put the person and his needs at the center;

determine strategies for professional intervention to eliminate conservatism in the organization of work;

· overcome traditional and minimalist approaches to information technology.

The analysis shows that the objects are large and small enterprises, the subject is a set of managerial relations that arise between people in the process of joint labor activity and are manifested in various forms their behavior and at various levels of organization (behavior in them, that is, the behavior of people).

2. MAIN PROBLEMS AND APPROACHES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

The field of study of the EP is the study of individual and group parameters of human behavior in an organization.

There are three levels of consideration of behavior problems: personal, group, organizational.

The personal level is the level of the individual, his decisions and his features, that is, motives, abilities, character. Morality, temperament, norms.

Group level - analysis of the characteristics of the group: age, gender, education, professional training, retraining, work experience, ability to make decisions, freedom of decision-making, interpersonal relationships, conflicts, etc.

Organizational level - organizational standards, the goals of which the employee should be aware of, the requirements for the solution, enshrined within the organizational culture.

Approaches to the study of organizational behavior

1. Focus on human capital(supportive approach). Analysis of the personal potential of the employee. Achieving the level of competence, theoretical activity, etc. Security perfection of knowledge, skills of employees, create an atmosphere for creative activity, provide an opportunity for self-realization.

2. The situational approach is based on the following principles:

the ability to quickly respond to the situation here and now;

making decisions in accordance with the situation;

the ability to see goals correctly;

providing the only correct method of management;

distribution of power;

Work assignments are universal in nature for organizing all types of situations.

3. Systems approach, it should be understood as a complex of interacting elements, that is, when making decisions, it is necessary to evaluate their consequences for the entire organization, because the distinctive features of this approach are:

the consequences, both positive and negative, when interacting with people are placed on the shoulders of management, that is, the application of the approach is associated with human problems;

This approach can be applied to any person;

This approach takes time to analyze the entire system.

3. PREREQUISITES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

The study of modern theories of organizational behavior requires consideration of the history of the development of science as a whole, which together has passed the path of evolution - progressive development and consistent improvement. It is this natural form of the formation of science that confirms its viability.

Two stages should be distinguished in the development of EP: empirical and scientific.

The first attempts to comprehend human behavior arose in ancient times on an empirical basis. The fundamental problems of personality were formulated in the works of the great ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other philosophers in the 4th-5th centuries. BC. For the first time in the history of European social thought, they posed the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, the social environment, the relationship between individualism and collectivism.

Questions of personality behavior in the environment were considered in various religious teachings. In particular, the idea of the primacy of the collective over the individual nourished early Christianity and, together with Orthodoxy, came to Rus'. Orthodoxy is characterized by a special spiritual attitude, a sense of belonging and unity, empathy, mutual love and sacrifice.

The prerequisites for the formation of the scientific concept of organizational behavior can be considered the ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity of the French Enlightenment (Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, P.A. Holbach), utopian socialists (T. More, T. Campanella, R. Owen) in the middle of the 18th century, class doctrine (K. Marx), the psychology of peoples (W. Wundt) in Germany in the middle of the 19th century.

Many ideas of thinkers of the past and present are directly related to the problems of interpersonal communication and group interaction of people.

4. SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

A systematic approach to the description of organizational behavior consists in presenting the behavior of an employee as a result of the combined influence of interrelated elements.

Social exchange - the exchange of various social benefits as the basis of social relations, on which various structural formations (power, status, prestige) grow. According to the theory of social exchange by D. Homans, the frequency and quality of rewards are directly proportional to the desire to help the source of a positive incentive.

Social comparison - comparison by an individual of labor costs and remuneration received with labor costs and remuneration of colleagues. Levels of comparison can be different - individual, group, organizational, regional, country.

Social equity - reward evaluation based on the results of social comparison. It can be positive or negative depending on the experience of social interaction of the individual. Social justice is the main reason for choosing a certain form of organizational behavior (for example, conscientious work or evasion).

Satisfaction is the employee's assessment and awareness of his position. It may be general, partial or absent altogether.

Purposefulness - striving to achieve the goal, activity based on awareness, hierarchy of goals, choice of means and calculation of results. Depending on the purpose, they form different types purposeful behavior of the individual: the implementation of a life plan, following a duty, following cultural norms, the implementation of close goals, self-directed behavior or lack of a guideline.

Rationality - the ability to effectively achieve goals and obtain a beneficial social comparison. The degree of rationality of organizational behavior allows you to determine the level of efficiency of personnel management. The definition of the rationality of organizational behavior is based on the use of test methods (MMPI test, R. Cattell, etc.).

Normativity is the correspondence of an individual's behavior to the norms accepted in a given social environment.

Deviance is the deviation of an individual's behavior from the goals and norms shared by the environment.

All categories of the systemic description of organizational behavior are interrelated and are implemented in practical activities manager in aggregate and in combination with each other. An integrated approach allows you to achieve effective use organization's human resources.

5. INCOMING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

OP is a 3-level model, in which each subsequent level is based on the previous one. A person, coming to the organization, has his own character traits and established patterns of behavior. He becomes a member of a group that appears to him, on the one hand, as freedom and develops his abilities, and on the other hand, imposes restrictions on a person. The same applies to org-ii as a whole.

1. Economy. system: Human capital:

1) prof. training and qualification

2) work experience and traditions

3) general culture and work culture

4) social-psych. human qualities

5) health and performance

The most effective areas for investing in human capital in different countries consider:

1) health and social. security

2) education

3) labor migration

2. National culture

Accounting for cultural differences is necessary. Because organizational behavior in different cultures has a difference, which determines the variety of relationships and elements. There are 5 main characteristics:

1. Relationship with the environment. environment

People are dependent on the environment. environments

people live in harmony with the environment. environment

people dominate the environment. environment

2. Temporal orientation

orientation to the past

orientation to the present

・Future orientation

3. The nature of people

· kind people

people are not kind

people m/b both good and not good

4. Activity orientation

· action

· Existence

control

individualists

hierarchy

6. Spatial orientation

privacy

openness

mixed character

6. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OP

1) productivity includes productivity and efficiency.

Enterprises work productively if the product is in demand and its market share is high. However, productivity will depend on the effectiveness of the enterprise in achieving its goals (profit, output per unit of time).

2) absenteeism (absent) Ex: assembly line. The level of absenteeism, exceeding the permissible one, affects the efficiency and productivity of work at the enterprise with the complication of technological processes and the introduction of more sophisticated equipment

3) staff turnover (the cost of staff selection, but more trained personnel can come to a vacant position)

4) satisfaction

There are two ways to measure satisfaction:

1. single assessment method:

Completely dissatisfied _______________________ Completely satisfied

2. summing up the satisfaction ratings of various aspects of the work:

self-realization at work

nature of control

a fair remuneration

working conditions

Matching work to personality type

the psychological climate

The output elements of the EP provide a real opportunity to analyze the effectiveness of the implementation of many measures to improve work with personnel and changes in work within the organization.

7. FEATURES OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process is the process of exchanging information. Precisely because the exchange of information is built into all the main types of management activities, we call communications a connecting process. And one of important tools management in the hands of the manager is the information at his disposal. Using and transmitting this information, as well as receiving feedback, he organizes, directs and motivates subordinates. Therefore, much depends on his ability to convey information in such a way that the most adequate perception of this information by those to whom it is intended is achieved.

In the process of communication, information is transferred from one subject to another. Individuals, groups, and entire organizations can act as subjects of the communication process.

Communication is carried out by conveying ideas, facts, opinions, sensations or perceptions, feelings and attitudes from one person to another, verbally or in some other form, in order to obtain the desired reaction in response.

When considering the communicative process, it is necessary to take into account that in the conditions of human communication, it is important not only how information is transmitted, but also how it is formed, refined, and developed. Communication and information are different. But things are related. Communication includes both what is being communicated and how that "what" is being communicated.

In order for communication to take place, at least two people are required. Therefore, each of the participants must have all or some of the abilities: to see, hear, touch, perceive smells and taste. Effective communication requires certain skills and abilities from each party.

Communication cannot be considered only as sending and receiving information, since we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of which is an active subject - their mutual informing involves the establishment of joint activities. Therefore, in the communicative process, not only the movement of information takes place, but also an active exchange of it.

In a specifically human exchange of information, the importance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication, since people do not just exchange words, but strive to develop a common meaning. And this is possible under the condition. That information is not only accepted. But understandable and meaningful.

The essence of the communicative process is both the exchange of information and the joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process, activity, communication and cognition are really combined.

The exchange of information necessarily implies an impact on the partner. The communicative influence that arises in this case is the psychological impact of one participant on another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful the impact was.

A communication network is a connection in a certain way of the participants in the communication process using communication channels. Channels are links that provide interaction and transfer of information between communication objects.

Communication networks can be of two types: centralized and decentralized.

In centralized networks, information moves sequentially from one participant to another. (reflect a hierarchical model of organizational relations and can be effective under certain conditions).

In decentralized networks, there is a free circulation of information flows between participants based on the decentralization of power. This ensures the formation of effective organizational interaction based on independence, creativity and initiative.

8. HUMAN PERCEPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Perception can be defined in the most general way as the process of receiving and processing information. It lies in the fact that information obtained from the external environment is processed, brought into a certain order and systematized. It contains a person's idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, acting as the source material for human behavior. Each person's perception of reality is different and always subjective.

Human perception of the organizational environment includes two processes: information selection and information systematization.

The most important feature of the perception of information is selectivity. A person, using visual, sound, tactile channels for obtaining information, does not perceive all the information that comes to him, but only that which has a special meaning for him. The selection of information is influenced not only by the physical capabilities of the sense organs, but also by the psychological components of a person's personality, such as attitude to what is happening, previous experience, professed values, mood, etc. As a result, the selection of information, on the one hand, allows a person to discard unimportant or unnecessary information, and on the other hand, it leads to the loss of important information, to a significant distortion of reality. The systematization of information involves its processing in order to bring it to a certain form and comprehension, which allows a person to react in a certain way to the information received.

The systematization of information by a person is carried out in two ways:

Logical information processing;

Information processing based human feelings, preferences, emotions, beliefs (“I love - I don’t like”, “I like it - I don’t like it”)

All factors influencing the perception of a person can be divided into internal and external. Among the factors internal to a person, the following can be distinguished:

the state of a person, his needs and expectations preceding the perception of the signal;

the presence of feelings of a positive or negative nature in relation to the perceived signal;

the degree of initial awareness of the received signals.

External factors that influence a person's perception of reality include:

the intensity of the transmitted signal;

signal mobility;

· the size;

the state of the environment in which the person is located.

Allocate ways of perception that make it difficult, create barriers and lead to errors in the perception of human reality:

stereotyping - reducing a more complex original phenomenon to a certain stereotype and, accordingly, to a simplified idea of this phenomenon.

transferring estimates of individual characteristics of a phenomenon to its other characteristics, or generalizing the assessment of a separate characteristic to the phenomenon as a whole.

Projection - the transfer of one's own feelings, motives, fears to other people.

first impression - (first impressions are deceptive).

9. COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN ORGANIZATION

The process of communication is the exchange of information between people. which is to ensure the understanding of transmitted and received information.

There are the following types of communications:

formal (determined by the organizational structure of the enterprise, the relationship of management levels and functional departments). The more control levels, the higher the probability of information distortion, since each control level can correct and filter messages;

Informal communications (for example, a rumor channel);

· vertical (interlevel) communications: top-down and bottom-up;

Horizontal communications - the exchange of information between different departments to coordinate actions;

Interpersonal communications - oral communication people in any of the listed types of communications.

Communication in an organization performs several important functions:

· providing information about the company's goals, how to do the job, standards of acceptable behavior, the need for change, etc.

· motivating members of the organization, for example, by determining valence, raising the degree of expectations and instrumentality, distributing specific goals and providing feedback.

· controlling and coordinating the efforts of individual employees, for example, by reducing work inactivity, communicating roles, rules and regulations, and avoiding duplication of efforts.

The transfer of information can be carried out in the following directions:

Top down: setting goals (what, when to do), instructing (how, in what way, who);

bottom-up: performance reports, inspection reports, employee opinion reports.

· in the horizontal direction: exchange of opinions, coordination of actions, planning, performance reports.

The transfer of information is carried out using sign systems. When classifying communication processes, we can distinguish:

verbal communication, speech is used as a sign system;

non-verbal communication, where various non-speech sign systems are used.

Errors that occur in the communication process are due to: selection of information, selectivity of perception, emotions, non-verbal signals, language problems, etc. Sometimes poor communication efficiency is associated with sources of interference such as physical distance, lack of feedback, status effects, and cultural differences. Communication barriers lead to the distortion of information and its loss. Using knowledge about the typology of communication barriers allows you to avoid negative consequences. Stand out:

1. communication barriers associated with the specifics of how people express their thoughts and their perception

2. communication barriers associated with unsatisfactory relationships in groups, between groups, with individuals. The message is not perceived due to a sense of antagonism or is deliberately distorted;

3. organizational communication barriers (levels of hierarchy, uncertainty of responsibilities, etc.);

4. technological communication barriers associated with the form of information transfer (ambiguity, possibility of repetition, etc.).

If the message is vague, the recipient may have difficulty deciphering it, or may think that the message does not mean what the sender had in mind. In this case, the likelihood increases that the recipient will act not on the basis of the message itself, but on the basis of their ideas, values, perceptions that affect decoding.

Up to (and including) the point at which the receiver decodes the messages, the communication process is concerned primarily with the exchange of information. Members of the organization know that they have reached an understanding and communicated effectively only after the feedback loop is completed, i.e. the second half of the process takes place.

business communication leadership organizational management

10. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

People communicate through verbal and non-verbal communications. The share of verbal communications in the process of human communication is about 10%. Verbal communications are realized with the help of written and oral messages. Oral transmission of messages is carried out in the process of speech dialogue, negotiations, meetings, presentations, telephone conversations, namely: when the largest volume of messages is transmitted through voice communication. Written messages are transmitted through documents in the form of letters, orders, directives, instructions, regulations, etc.

Non-verbal communications are carried out through body language (up to 55% of all communications) and speech parameters (up to 35% of all communications). Body language has an effect on the other person. Body language includes: clothing, posture, gestures, actual body movements, posture, human figure, facial expression, eye contact, pupil size, distance between speakers, etc. Speech parameters include: speech rate, voice volume, voice timbre, intonation, choice of words, use of jargon, interjections, laughter, crying, whispering, various combinations of sounds that have no independent meaning, etc.

Body language is used by all people but understood by only a few. With clients, business partners, guests, family members, you communicate not only through conversation, but also through the mood of a person.

Understanding the body language of others is very important, but it is equally important to learn to speak this language yourself.

With some practice, you can learn to correctly interpret the body language of others, and this will allow you to better use the signs of your non-verbal body language, which conveys your true thoughts and allows you to better understand those with whom you communicate.

Without words, it will become clear to you whether partners are lying to you, whether people of the opposite sex feel sympathy or antipathy towards you, whether your guests are bored, whether clients are impatient; whether they are open, nervous, suspicious, angry or insecure.

Many body language signs can be used consciously or unconsciously.

A person who deliberately tilts his head to one side signals our interest. A person who is interested in something unconsciously tilts his head to the side. A frustrated and angry person unconsciously lowers the corners of his mouth.

Examples of conscious body language common in most European countries:

a raised hand with two fingers in a "V" means victory;

raised clenched fist - a sign of threat;

a raised hand or finger is a sign that a person wants to say something;

a finger attached to the lips means: quieter;

a finger pointing at the clock is a sign that it is time to end the conversation;

the palm applied to the ear shows: speak louder, hard to hear.

By understanding unconscious body language, you will be able to recognize hidden social, emotional, sexual and other attitudes, as well as understand the state of mind, attitudes and intentions of your acquaintances, relatives and partners.

11. TYPES AND TECHNIQUES OF LISTENING

Each person wants to see in his interlocutor an attentive and friendly listener. Therefore, each of us is pleased to communicate not with those who can speak, but with those who can listen. Studies show that no more than 10% of people know how to listen to the interlocutor. It is no coincidence that one of the areas for improving the skills of managers in the leading countries of the world is effective listening courses.

One of the most important moments in any listening is feedback, thanks to which the interlocutor gets the feeling that he is not speaking into the void, but with a living person who listens and understands him. Moreover, in any statement there are at least two meaningful levels: informational and emotional.

The following listening methods can be distinguished:

1. Deaf silence (apparent lack of reaction) .2. Assent.3. "Echo reaction" - repetition of the last word of the interlocutor. 4. "Mirror" - repetition of the last phrase of the interlocutor with a change in word order. 5. "Paraphrase" - the transfer of the content of the partner's statement in other words. 6 Motivation. 7. Clarifying questions. 8. Leading questions.

9. Grades, advice. 10. Continuation (when the listener wedged into the remark, tries to complete the phrase, suggests words). 11. Emotions. 12. Irrelevant statements (not relevant or related only formally).

13. Logical consequences from the statements of the partner, an example of the assumption about the cause of the event. 14. "Rude reactions." 15. Questioning (asks question after question without explaining the purpose). 16. Neglect of the partner (does not pay attention to him, does not listen, ignores the partner, his words.

Usually there are 3 measures in listening:

Support;

clarification;

Commenting.

During support, the main goal is to enable a person to express his position. Appropriate reactions of the listener at this stage are silence, assent, emotional "accompaniment".

In the process of clarifying the goal: to make sure that you understand the interlocutor correctly, for this they ask clarifying, leading questions, a paraphrase is made.

When commenting, the listener expresses his opinion about what he heard: gives advice, assessments, comments.

12. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

A role is a way of behavior set by society. The role consists of two basic foundations:

intentions;

requirements, expectations of other people regarding roles.

During the day, a person performs various roles. He is inclined to make decisions, to talk about problems that interest him, but most importantly, a person must learn not to put up with defeats. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly develop positive thinking, that is, a person should direct his efforts to solving the problems facing him.

The role theory of personality is a theory according to which a personality is described by means of learned and accepted by the subject or forced to perform social functions and patterns of behavior due to social status individuals in a given social group. The main provisions are formulated by J. Mead and R. Linton. The first focuses on the mechanisms of “role learning”, mastering roles in the process of interpersonal interaction, the second draws attention to the socio-cultural nature of role prescriptions and their connection with the social position of the individual, as well as to the maintenance of role requirements by a system of social and group sanctions.

Within the framework of the theory, such phenomena as “role conflict” are experimentally identified - the experience by the subject of ambiguity or confrontation of role requirements from different social communities, of which he is a member, which creates a stressful situation; integration and disintegration of the role structure of the personality - a consequence of the harmony or conflict of social relations; role set; role tension; adaptation to the role, etc.

Self-esteem affects the performance of the role, it is formed from childhood. By the age of 6, the child should learn to evaluate others and transfer to himself. In school years, there is an adjustment and further development of self-esteem.

There are 4 types of installations, in relation to others:

I am good - you are good - this is the most correct and productive attitude, since in most cases we are harmed not by intent, but by thoughtlessness;

I am good - you are bad - it is typical for those who are not capable of self-affirmation being created, they seek to place responsibility on other people's shoulders. Such people humiliate others.

I am bad - you are bad - such people lose the meaning of life, apathy for work, easily irritated.

Thus, it is rare when a person wholly and completely belongs to one or another installation. As a rule, a synthesis of such installations is observed.

13. DYNAMICS OF ROLE BEHAVIOR

Every person has to play many roles during their life. Ultimately, the role is either suitable or not, a person chooses different ways to behave in the role. The same person in different roles can produce a completely different impression. It also depends on the mood, experience, situation. It is impossible to learn all roles. Distinguish

intended (prescribed) - those roles that cannot be chosen and changed: gender, race;

selected (selected).

The learning of roles and the formation of a role in an organization is undergoing changes, and this depends on a number of factors (on changes in society).

The change of role is connected with the development of civilization and culture. Each person in this or that role absorbs certain patterns of behavior.

Thus, the development of a role is a process in the course of life and work of a person, which must be carried out in an ascending manner.

14. CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL ROLE BEHAVIOR

One of the reasons that can prevent successful role behavior is the lack of clarity and acceptability of the role. It begins to unfold with the first introductory conversation.

Causes of conflict barriers due to the role:

performance by the employee of several mutually exclusive roles;

The performance by the employee of a role that occupies a dual position in the organization;

role overload, when employees went beyond the scope of the role when performing the task.

Actions of the manager to eliminate role problems:

1. change of work - it is necessary to analyze the situation enough to change the state of work.

2. shift of workers;

3. unloading of roles;

4. create conditions for creative activity;

5. change your attitude towards people.

From the worker side:

1. understand the situation (conduct a deep analysis);

2. change your attitude horizontally or vertically.

15. SOCIAL ROLES

Relationships in a team arise between people as carriers of certain social roles, suggesting the constancy of behavior in accordance with a more or less clearly established standard.

A whole system of norms is necessary for the emergence of a role.

A social role is a set of norms that determine behavior in a given social position of a given social position. A person can form his individual image according to his role, predict his behavior in the role and foresee the result.

Social roles differ:

By gender - men and women;

According to the method of manifestation - active and latent;

According to the degree of standardization - standardized and freely interpreted;

In terms of importance - dominant and secondary.

Each role has associated rights and responsibilities. The role involves how to behave towards others and what can be expected from them. Certain rights, obligations and expectations are always associated with the role, and the individual who does not justify them is subject to sanctions, and the one who justifies them is encouraged. Different people often have different values, ideas about the same role and behave differently in it.

Role is a dynamic aspect of status. Status is a social rank that determines a person's place in the system of social relations. Possession of status allows a person to expect and demand certain attitudes from other people.

The influence of roles in a person's life is great and he gets used to his roles. The process of adaptation to the role is also carried out individually and the human brain strictly controls the actions, at such moments it controls what to say and how to act. To improve relationships between people, it is useful to use role inversion - the ability to put oneself in the place of another.

Roles in the team are divided into "production" (functional and social) and "interpersonal".

Specialists distinguish the following production roles:

coordinator - has the greatest organizational skills and, as a result, usually becomes the leader of the team, regardless of their knowledge and experience;

Idea generator - the most capable and talented member of the team, develops options for solving any problems facing the front;

controller - is not capable of thinking creatively, but due to deep knowledge, experience, erudition, he can properly evaluate any idea;

grinder - has a broad view of the problem;

Enthusiast - the most active member of the team;

Seeker of benefits - an intermediary in internal and external relations;

performer - conscientiously implements other people's ideas, but needs constant guidance;

assistant - a person who personally does not strive for anything.

It is believed that the team will function normally with the full distribution and conscientious performance of the listed roles. According to the roles associated with interpersonal relationships, team members are usually divided into leaders and followers. The first group is formed by preferred persons (“stars”, authoritative, ambitious, attractive people). The second includes all the rest, including those who are not preferred (neglected, outcasts), with whom they cooperate only involuntarily and make them responsible for everything.

16. TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

Transactional or transactional analysis is a system of group psychotherapy in which the interaction of individuals is analyzed from the point of view of the three main states of the Self.

The founder of this direction in psychology and psychotherapy is American psychologist and psychiatrist Eric Berne, who developed it in the 1950s. 20th century E. Bern singled out the subject of research and observation - human behavior. The method created by E.Bern is divided into several stages:

Structural analysis, or the theory of ego states;

· proper transactional analysis of activity and communication, based on the concept of "transaction" as the interaction of the ego-states of two individuals entering into communication (the ego-state is understood as the actual mode of existence of the I-subject);

analysis of psychological games;

Script analysis (analysis of a life scenario - "script").

E.Bern believed that each person has his own life scenario, the model of which is outlined in early childhood. People grow up, but in accordance with their life scenario they continue to play various games. The whole life of mankind is filled with games. According to E. Bern, the most terrible game is war. There are three I-States: I-Adult, I-Parent, I-Child. Group psychotherapy, according to E. Berne, should take shape at the Adult-Adult level. The head of the enterprise, the manager must learn to identify the states of the Adult both in his own consciousness and behavior, and in the consciousness and behavior of other people, especially subordinates, clients, partners, achieving communication at the Adult-Adult level.

Skillful possession of this method helps the manager to achieve effective communication. Communication will be effective when it is conducted in the same language, i.e. the Adult will talk to the Adult, the Child to the Child, the Parent to the Parent.

Distinguish between transactional analysis in the narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, it is an analysis of the interaction of two or more people, in a broad sense, it is a socially oriented psychotherapeutic method, the ultimate goal of which is the formation of a harmonious, socially adapted personality.

Structural analysis studies how much of a person's personality and actions this or that ego state occupies.

The ego-state Parent (R), according to E. Berne, reveals itself in such manifestations as control, prohibitions, ideal requirements, dogmas, sanctions, care, power. A parent is a collection of dogmas and postulates that a person perceives in childhood and which he then retains throughout his life. This is the dominant part of the personality. The parent is the most inert part of the human self, which always remains outside the zone of criticism. The parent influences the behavior of a person, performing the function of conscience.

An adult (B) is distinguished by his state - attentive, interested, aimed at searching for information. The facial expression of the Adult is pensive, attentive, open; intonations adequate to reality. Postures of a person with an ego-state Adult: the head and torso are tilted towards the interlocutor.

Child (Rb) - a set of norms that characterize a child from different angles: inattention, clumsiness. State changing from depressed to over-enthusiastic. Postures: spontaneous mobility, fingers clenched into fists.

In transactional analysis, interaction in communication is understood as an interaction of positions.

1) additional transactions - they adequately understand the situation and positions of each other.

2) Intersecting transactions - occur when there is an inadequacy of the assessment of the situation and contact, when one partner does not want to understand the other.

3) Hidden transactions - including two levels: expressed in words (verbal) and implied, psychological, the understanding of which is possible with sufficient knowledge of each other by partners.

17. SCHEME OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

External environment (down arrow) Freedom of choice (4 down arrows) Imagination - Conscience - Self-consciousness - Will (from all one down arrow) Reaction (down arrow) External physiological manifestations (down arrow) individual movements and gestures (down arrow) Actions

Proactive behavior, which is formed only by a person, involves the ability to choose a response to what is happening.

Human behavior is determined by:

1) motivation

2) perception

3) attitude

4) assimilation

18. BASICS OF MOTIVATION

The role of tools that cause the appearance of certain motives are incentives, which can be used as:

Separate items.

Actions of other people.

Promises;

Bearers of obligations and opportunities;

Opportunities provided, etc.

Incentives have various forms, but in management practice, one of its most common forms is material incentives, since the role of this incentive process is exceptionally large. The fundamental difference between stimulation and motivation is that stimulation is only one of the means by which motivation can be carried out. From the point of view of management, it is very important not only to know the direction of a person’s actions, but also to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation, to orient these actions in the direction of certain goals.

19. APPLICATION IN THE PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE CONTENT THEORY OF MOTIVATION

The very first method of motivation, which arose thousands of years ago, was the “carrot and stick” method. This method provides only two forms of influence on the employee - either encouragement or punishment, regardless of the personality characteristics of the individual.

In the 1930s, the theory of “human relations” was developed (Z. Freud, E. Mayo). In the 1940s, substantive theories of motivation were formed, and in the 1960s, process theories of motivation were developed.

In the development of theories of motivation, two main patterns should be distinguished:

individualization of approach to each employee;

An increase in the number of factors influencing labor motivation.

A need is a perceived need, a lack of something. Needs serve as a motive for action.

1. Hierarchical theory of needs

In 1940, Abraham Maslow proposed a theory of human needs.

He identified five hierarchical levels of needs:

1. Physiological needs (needs for water, food, sexual needs, etc.).

2. Needs for security and confidence in the future (needs for physical and social security, protection, stability).

3. Social needs (needs for communication, love, belonging to a group, etc.).

4. Needs for respect and recognition (the need for evaluation by others, for prestige, respect, recognition of professional competence, attractiveness, etc.).

5. Needs for self-expression and self-development.

Application of the theory

1. Knowledge of the hierarchy of needs requires the manager, first of all, to determine which level of the hierarchy is most relevant for the employee. For example, the director has two secretaries. One is the daughter of a prominent businessman, who is not interested in wages, the attractiveness of work for her is connected with the interesting people around her and the signs of attention that they give her. Another husband has lost his job, and she has to provide for a family of four alone. In the first case, the work satisfies the needs of the third and fourth levels, in the second - the first level.

2. Hierarchy of needs allows you to understand that the levels of actual needs of employees may vary. For one subordinate, a few phrases from the boss are enough, marking his great contribution to the common cause, in order to double his efforts, for another, neither praise nor very high material rewards serve as motivating factors.

3. This concept helps the organization determine the sequence of motivating employees, taking into account not only physiological needs, but also the needs of higher levels.

4. Accounting for the dynamism of needs. (You cannot expect a motivation that worked once to work effectively all the time.)

Motivating factors actively influence human behavior and increase labor motivation.

20. APPLICATION IN THE PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas MacGregor describes the traditional view of the human factor in manufacturing as "Theory X", which includes several theses regarding the average person:

He is lazy by nature - works as little as possible. He has no ambition, he does not like responsibility, he prefers to be controlled. He is very egocentric, indifferent to the interests of the organization. By nature, he tends to resist change. He is gullible, not very smart, ready to be deceived by any charlatan or demagogue.

According to D. McGregory, the theory of U is more in line with the current situation. This theory is based on the assumption that employees love to work, are creative in their approach to business, seek responsibility and can direct their activities independently. People are not passive by nature, they become so only as a result of working in a particular organization. Leaders have a responsibility to ensure that people can develop their inherent good qualities. An important task is to create in the organization such conditions under which people could more easily achieve both their own goals and the goals of the organization.

2. The theory of goal-setting proceeds from the fact that the employee's understanding of the goal activates the need for achievement, stimulates performance. The development of goals contributes to the improvement of the activities of individual employees and groups.

3. The theory of justice (J. Adams, 1970) establishes that people determine for themselves the ratio of the reward received and the effort expended and correlate it with the reward of other people doing similar work. If the comparison shows an imbalance, i.e. a person believes that his colleague received more remuneration for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress. It is necessary to motivate this employee, relieve tension, restore justice.

Main conclusion. Until people begin to believe that they are getting a fair remuneration, they will tend to reduce the intensity of work. A vivid illustration of this theory can be considered a decrease in the efforts of public sector employees in Russia, due to a long delay in wages caused by a budget deficit.

4. Expectancy theory

In 1964, Victor Vroom laid out the foundations of a new motivational theory - the theory of expectations. He argued that the leader must know three things related to the effectiveness of the activities of individuals and the organization as a whole:

a person believes that the results obtained depend on his efforts (З→Р)

the person believes that the reward will correspond to the results obtained (P → B)

For a person, the reward should be significant (V - valency - satisfaction with the reward).

The degree of labor motivation (M) can be expressed by the formula:

М=(З→Р)* (Р→В)* V

If one of these points is violated, the efficiency of the worker is reduced. Summarized, these provisions can be presented in the following form:

effort -> performance -> reward -> need for performance

Thus, the application of procedural theories of motivation enables the manager to take into account not only the needs of the staff, but also their perception of the current situation, as well as the possible consequences of the chosen type of behavior.

21. RULES OF EFFECTIVE MOTIVATION

1) Only what is asked is done - only what is measurable is done - only what is rewarded is done

2) During the working day, people do what they will communicate

MOTHER'S RULE: If you (when you) - do it - then you can do it

3) If the efficiency of the quality of work does not improve, then reinforcements do not work

4) Have a clear idea at what stage of what cycle of motivation is subordination.

22. PROCESS OF PERCEPTION

The process of perception is the process by which a person selects, limits and interprets information to create his own picture of the world around him.

1) Selective perception - people who notice stimuli are associated with existing needs (those that they expect, those that are rarely different from others)

2) Selective distortion - people who notice annoyance may perceive information differently than the sender intended, and interpret it in such a way as to support, rather than challenge, beliefs.

3) Selective memorization - only that info that can be convinced is remembered.

23. THEORY OF ATRIBUTION

In this theory, the factors that determine behavior are divided into 2 internal and external.

The accuracy of defining attributes depends on the following points:

1) Distinctness - consists in the fact that various actions of a person can be considered as ordinary behavior and as unusual behavior. If the behavior is seen as normal, then it is perceived as a consequence of internal attributes. If the behavior is seen as unusual, then it is perceived as a consequence of external attributes.

2) Consensus - behavior corresponds to a high consensus when other people in the initial situation behave in a similar way. High consensus corresponds to external attribution, and low consensus corresponds to internal attribution.

30 Consistency - This behavior often exhibits high consistency due to internal attribution and low consistency due to external attribution.

24. BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

The most common methods are:

1) Positive reinforcement - after the employee implements his behavior, the management encourages him.

2) Negative reinforcement - is a consequence of something unpleasant that a person would like to avoid. Negative reinforcement reinforces and increases the likelihood of a behavior by blocking or discouraging unwanted consequences.

25. MAIN STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

Management of the behavior of the organization should be carried out taking into account the phase of the life cycle of the organization (LLC). The phases of the life cycle are predictable changes in the state of the organization that occur in time with a certain sequence (from birth, flourishing to cessation of existence or radical modernization).

According to the model of organizational development of L. Greiner (1972), there are five stages (phases) of the life cycle of an organization, separated from each other by moments of organizational crises.

The first stage: the birth of the organization - the definition of the main goal and the desire to maximize profits, the realization of the creative potential of the founders of the organization. The organizational structure is informal, resulting in a leadership crisis. The main task of the first stage is to enter the market and survive.

The second stage: childhood and adolescence - short-term profit and accelerated growth. A bureaucratic management structure is being formed, which leads to the suppression of the autonomy of departments. The main task of the second stage is to strengthen and capture part of the market.

The third stage: maturity - systematic, balanced growth, the formation of an individual image of the organization, decentralization of leadership and delegation of authority. Development is ensured through structural adjustment, which subsequently leads to a crisis of control. The main task is to diversify the activities of the organization.

The fourth stage: the aging of the organization (the highest stage of maturity) - the preservation of the results achieved, changes in the system for coordinating the functioning of the organization's divisions. In the structure of the organization, strategic divisions are distinguished with high independence, which subsequently becomes the cause of the crisis of borders. The main task is to ensure the stability and preservation of the organization.

Fifth stage: the revival of the organization - the desire to revive the organization, the expansion of cooperation. A new impetus to development is given by the creation of a team of like-minded people in the organization. The main task is the rejuvenation and revival of the organization. This stage may culminate in a crisis of "organizational fatigue" or trust. This stage is not the last in the life of the organization. It only indicates the logical completeness of a certain type of organizational development. A sixth stage may then follow, based on a dual structure: a "habitual" structure to ensure the performance of daily routine operations and a "reflective" structure to stimulate promising activities and personal development.

Each stage is distinguished by the peculiarities of the behavior of the personnel and the organization as a whole, the style of management, development goals and ways to achieve them. Management of the behavior of the organization should be focused on the reorganization of management structures. Organizational structures must change as the firm's objectives change. An imperfect structure leads to conflicts, disruption of normal operation, "role uncertainty", which leads to a decrease in the performance and profitability of the organization.

In general terms, the effectiveness of the organization refers to the ability to achieve the goals at the lowest cost. In connection with the complication of the tasks of managing a modern organization, a new concept of a highly effective organization is being formed. Thus, the process of managing the behavior of an organization should be aimed at the formation of a high-performing organization - an organization capable of achieving high-performing ones.

26. WAYS OF INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE

1) Alternative work schedule - provides for the rejection of a fixed work schedule, the replacement of which is proposed by an alternative:

Compressed work week

Flexible working hours (4-6 hours at work)

2) Reducing routine in work:

Constructiveness at work

Constant change in the pace of work

Expansion of the number of employees, combination of operations

Employee generalizations

27. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF BEHAVIOR

In modern Russian psychology, in particular, the Lomov School (Moscow State University), where they study the psychological characteristics of the activities of small groups. Aircraft crews were taken as the object of study. spaceships. The results obtained are fully tied to organizations, since the number of high-risk situations and other indicators for modern business in Russia and space flights is the same.

Conducted studies have shown that with long-term joint work, 2-3 times more value acquires interpersonal interaction and external communication than other factors. In addition, with an increase in the complexity of the tasks performed, with their group solution, there is a greater stability of the temporal and stressful characteristics of actions.

To characterize the behavior of workers in a group, it is necessary to know the main group characteristics:

The level and dynamics of the psychological mood of the group;

organizational abilities of the group as a complex subject of activity in the conditions of uncertainty and instability of the organization;

highlighting the characteristics of leaders;

adequacy of self-determination of the individual and the group (role);

the degree of conformity of organizational and group relations to activities;

sources of tension in the group.

1. Personal level

Psychological features:

The individual's perception of the world around him. It influences behavior through values, principles, beliefs.

· Criteria base sets the priorities of behavior. It consists of a disposition towards people, events, processes, a set of values, beliefs and principles.

Individual traits and characteristics of a person's character that directly affect behavior: hereditary and physiological characteristics of a person; character, environmental factors.

Social features:

circle of communication, official and personal;

role, a set of actions that depend on psychological features and places in the management hierarchy;

· Status - assessment by others of the personality of the subject and the role used by him.

Each person is a person whose individuality is determined life experience, refracted through personality traits and manifested through a person's attitude to surrounding phenomena and the originality of his internal mental functions.

Conventionally, one can speak of the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups.

The internal structure of the personality includes a number of substructures:

a) the psychological environment that has developed in the mind of the individual: a system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview;

b) psychological means, the possibility of realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities;

c) mental properties of a person: character, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.;

d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament.

2. Group

Psychological features: psychological climate - the real state of interaction between people as participants in joint activities; conformism. Social features: status-role relations; professional-qualification relations.

Thus, being intermediate between individual and collective relationships, group relationships have specific characteristics that have a great influence on the model of organizational behavior.

The main problem of managing groups and group relationships is to determine the optimal combination of group and organizational interests in which labor factors motivating groups will be most effective.

28. THE CONCEPT OF A GROUP AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

A group is a real-life formation in which people are brought together according to common signs of joint activity and in a certain way are aware of their belonging to this formation.

Uniting in groups for joint activities, problems appear, tasks that cannot be solved. It can also be interpersonal relationships. Uniting in groups, they experience this effect. People come together in groups to do a certain job. The group affects the individual and the individual affects the group. The problem may be that in the process of activities with other people, people behave differently than when alone with themselves.

signs social group:

general purpose and objectives of the activity;

The internal organization

group values;

own sign of isolation;

group pressure;

· consolidation of traditions, symbols.

Classification:

a real group, an association of people that exists in a common space.

conditional group, an association of people for research on a certain basis.

· a laboratory group, created for research and determined based on the needs of the group.

· large groups, social communities, united on the basis of certain features. They can be unorganized (rally) and spontaneous - they are organized according to national, class, gender characteristics.

· small groups - small groups can be official, but do not have legal status.

formal groups are distinguished as structural units, have a formal leader, group positions, role structure, functions, tasks. Formal groups exist within formally accepted organizations. Informal, created spontaneously in accordance with their sympathies. Allocate such as corporations and collectives.

Corporations are groups of randomly assembled people that lack cohesion. It is not very useful, and sometimes harmful.

The collective is the highest form of group organization in which interpersonal relations are mediated by the individual.

The goals of a person's entry into an informal group are often not realized, but they can be:

realization of the need for communication;

search for protection

The need for help

· personal sympathies;

desire for new sensations;

Fulfillment of the need for belonging.

We need to see the positive that informal groups can bring. Very often belonging to an informal group is a stronger factor than higher wage in a neighboring organization.

It is necessary to take into account the negative manifestations of informal groups. They often behave in unpredictable ways, they consume the resources of working time, give rise to rumors and create other situations that are unfavorable for the formal organization.

29. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUPS

The main characteristics of the group

Composition (age; professional and social characteristics)

Structure (communications; preferences; power; emotional; interpersonal relationships and its connection with the functional structure of group activity). The structure is based on status-role relations, professionally qualified characteristics and gender and age composition.

Status is determined by a number of factors: seniority; job title; location of offices; education; social talents; awareness; accumulation of experience.

Role characteristics are determined by two sides: human behavior; his assessment. Assessment of behavior in a role is given by self-assessment and other people. For the effective operation of the team, it is necessary that all roles complement each other, that is, the same role can perform several functions, and there may be conflicts. Professionally qualified characteristics include education, professional level.

group processes. Group processes include those that organize the activities of the group and are associated with the development of the group.

Group norms and values; Group norms are the rules that are developed by groups to which its members obey, it is the norms that influence people's behavior.

The norms help people in this group determine what behavior and what work is expected of them, if they are observed, assuming that a person belongs to the group, and if he opposes, then the norms can carry both a positive and a negative picture. Norms are associated with values that are formed on the basis of a certain attitude.

The values of a social group may not coincide, may be correlated differently with the norms, so the task of the manager is to identify the hierarchy of values.

system of sanctions.

30. INTERACTION PERSON AND GROUP

The interaction of a person and a group is always bilateral in nature: a person, through his work, through his actions, contributes to the solution of group problems, but the group also has a great influence on a person, helping him to satisfy his needs of security, love, respect, self-expression, personality formation, elimination of worries, etc. P. It is noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intra-group life, people have better health and better morals, they are better protected from external influences and work more efficiently than people who are in an isolated state or in “sick” groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability. . The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.

But the group not only helps a person to survive and improve his professional qualities. The impact of the group on a person has many manifestations.

Significant changes in human behavior that occur under the influence of the group.

Changes in such characteristics of a person as perception, motivation, sphere of attention, rating system, etc. A person expands the scope of his attention by increasing attention to the interests of other members of the group. His life is dependent on the actions of his colleagues, and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and others.

In a group, a person receives a certain relative "weight". The group not only distributes tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of each. Group members can do exactly the same job, but have a different "weight" in the group.

The group helps the individual gain a new vision of his "I". A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his worldview, in understanding his place in the world and his destiny.

Being in a group, participating in discussions and developing solutions, a person can also give out suggestions and ideas that he would never give out if he thought about the problem alone. The effect on the person brainstorming» Significantly increases the creative potential of a person.

It is noted that in a group a person is much more inclined to take risks than in a situation where he acts alone. In some cases, this feature of changing human behavior is the source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone.

Being in interaction with the group, a person tries in various ways to influence it, to make changes in its functioning so that it is acceptable for him, convenient for him and allows him to cope with his duties. Naturally, both the form of influence and the degree of influence of a person on a group significantly depend both on his personal characteristics, his ability to influence, and on the characteristics of the group. The interaction of a person with a group can be either in the nature of cooperation, or merger, or conflict. For each form of interaction, a different degree of manifestation can be observed. That is, for example, we can talk about a hidden conflict, a weak conflict, or an unresolvable conflict.

31. PROCESS OF FORMATION OF MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMS

The problem of the economic interest of employees in improving the final results of the organization remains one of the most important. The readiness and desire of a person to perform their work qualitatively is a key factor in the success of the functioning of the organization itself.

Effective management of a person is possible only with proper motivation of his activity, only through the motives underlying his actions. It is necessary to know what caused certain motives, how and in what ways they can be put into action, how the process of motivating people is carried out.

Under the motivation of a person to activity is understood a set of internal and external driving forces that encourage a person to act, set the boundaries and forms, and the direction of these actions, focused on achieving certain goals.

Its main elements are:

· subjects and objects of motivation, as well as a system of social factors that determine the economic behavior of people. The latter, in turn, include creativity, motives, needs, incentives, attitudes, value orientations, interests and goals;

External motivators, or incentives, of economic behavior, socio-political conditions, financial and tax policy, legal, housing and family conditions, spiritual environment, natural and geographical environment, etc.

Motives are things that cause certain actions of a person. They not only encourage a person to act, but also determine what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. Motives are personal in nature and depend on a variety of external and internal factors in relation to a person, as well as on the action of other motives that arise in parallel with them.

Human behavior is usually determined by a set of motives that are in some relationship with each other in terms of the degree of impact on a person. The motivational structure of a person formed in this way can be considered as the basis for the implementation of purposeful actions by him. Although the motivational structure of a person has a certain stability, it can change consciously due to changes taking place in his personality. The role of tools that cause the appearance of certain motives are stimuli, which can be used as: individual objects. the actions of other people. promises; bearers of obligations and opportunities; opportunities provided, etc.

Incentives - this is what is offered to a person in compensation for his activities or what he would like to receive as a result of certain actions. At the same time, a person's reaction to stimuli can be both conscious and unconscious, and his reaction to individual stimuli may not even be subject to conscious control.

Incentives have various forms, but in management practice, one of its most common forms is material incentives, since the role of this incentive process is exceptionally large. At the same time, it is very important to take into account the specific circumstances under which material incentives are provided. Exaggeration of its capabilities must be avoided. This is due to the fact that a person has a very complex and ambiguous system of needs, interests, priorities and goals.

The fundamental difference between stimulation and motivation is that stimulation is only one of the means by which motivation can be carried out. The higher the level of development of relations in the organization, the less often incentives are used as a means of managing people. This is due to the fact that using upbringing and training as one of the methods of motivating people, it is possible to ensure that the members of the organization themselves show an interested participation in the affairs of the organization, carrying out the necessary actions. without waiting or without receiving the appropriate stimulating effect at all.

From the point of view of management, it is very important not only to know the direction of a person’s actions, but also to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation, to orient these actions in the direction of certain goals.

Thus, motivation in a more specific sense can be considered as a set of forces that encourage a person to carry out activities with the expenditure of certain efforts, at a certain level of diligence and conscientiousness, with a certain degree of perseverance towards achieving certain goals.

32. CONCEPT AND BASIC THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the process of influencing individuals or groups of people to achieve their goals. Leadership is the most important factor in the organizational behavior management system. As a socio-economic phenomenon, leadership in its development has gone through a long evolutionary path, during which it was based on physical, generic, intellectual, economic and other features. It represents the historically established social need of people to organize their joint activities. According to A. Roddick, “leadership is the ability to awaken in employees the dream they will strive for, “breathe” into them the energy necessary for movement.”

A leader is a person (group of persons) who can have a real influence on the behavior of employees. The formal leader is not always the leader. The nomination of a leader is influenced by objective and subjective factors (situation, personal aspiration). The defining features in the assessment and support of the leader by the group are: vigor, determination, perseverance, enthusiasm, ambition, abilities and knowledge, justice, self-confidence, etc.

Basic Leadership Theories

There are several approaches to the study of leadership.

The approach from the position of personal qualities (1930s) explains leadership by the presence of a certain set of personal qualities common to all leaders. However, in practice, the existence of a standard set of qualities that leads to success in all situations has not been confirmed.

The behavioral approach (1940-50s) considers leadership as a set of patterns of behavior of a leader in relation to subordinates.

The situational approach (early 1960s) argues that situational factors play a decisive role in the effectiveness of leadership, while not rejecting the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.

Modern approaches (1990s) postulate the effectiveness of adaptive leadership - reality-oriented leadership. It means the application of all known management styles, methods and ways of influencing people, in accordance with a specific situation. This allows us to interpret leadership not only as a science, but also as an art of management.,

One of the most common is the theory of leadership by K. Levin (1938). She identifies three leadership styles:

Authoritarian - characterized by rigidity, exactingness, unity of command, the prevalence of power functions, strict control and discipline, focus on results, ignoring socio-psychological factors;

Democratic - relies on collegiality, trust, informing subordinates, initiative, creativity, self-discipline, consciousness, responsibility, encouragement, publicity, orientation not only on results, but also on ways to achieve them;

Liberal - characterized by low demands, connivance, lack of discipline and exactingness, the passivity of the leader and the loss of control over subordinates, giving them complete freedom of action.

33. TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS

1. Leader-organizer. Its main difference is that it perceives the needs of the team as its own and actively acts. This leader is optimistic and confident that most problems can be solved.

2. Leader-creator. It attracts, first of all, the ability to see the new, to take on the solution of problems that may seem unresolved and even dangerous.

3. Leader-wrestler. Strong-willed, self-confident person. The first to face danger or the unknown, without hesitation enters the fight.

4. Leader-diplomat. He relies on an excellent knowledge of the situation and its hidden details, is aware of gossip and gossip, and therefore knows well whom and how to influence.

5. Comforter leader. To reach out to him because he is ready to support in difficult times. Respects people, treats them kindly, politely, helpfully, capable of empathy.

Informal leaders can be divided into three types:

· business (instrumental) enjoys recognition in the team, has a high qualification level, successful performance of the duties assigned to him. He takes the initiative in solving the problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and methods.

Everyone turns to the information leader with questions, because he is an erudite person, knows everything, can explain and help find the necessary information.

An emotional leader is a person to whom each person in a group can turn for sympathy and compassion. He takes on the functions of a group mood in problem situations.

From the position of group activity, the functions of an informal leader are reduced to two main ones: setting, maintaining goals, customs, traditions; motivation of group members' behavior in accordance with group norms.

34. ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

The organizational climate, in contrast to the organizational culture, contains less stable characteristics and criteria that determine the climate mainly come from people, from employees and depend on subjective and objective factors: mood, character, health status, satisfaction of needs, understanding and attitude to work. The climate in each department is built in its own way, and there are no such departments where there would be identical organizational climates. An external factor influencing the climate is changes in the organization.

When designing an organization, the psychological climate of each department is formed through certain stages. This is especially noticeable when random people get into the department. The psychological climate of the organization is sensitive to management styles.

The organizational climate is associated with organizational culture, and under its influence, contradictions that arise both vertically and horizontally can be eliminated.

Thus, the formation of the organizational climate is influenced by both external and internal factors, and the main determinants are:

Management values, the values of managers and the peculiarities of their perception by employees are important for the climate in the organization;

economic conditions;

The organizational structure, it should be understood as a management structure, as a set of specialized, functioning units, interconnected in the process of substantiation, development, adoption and implementation of management decisions. Changes in organizational structure often result in significant climate change in the organization;

Characteristics of the members of the organization;

The size of the organization; It has been established that large organizations are characterized by greater rigidity and bureaucracy than small ones. It is easier to achieve a high level of cohesion in small companies than in large ones;

job content – this should be understood as the result of knowledge about a particular job in a particular organization. It's about that the title of the work should reflect its content and should be implemented. The applicant for this or that role must know to whom he reports. If a person does not know to whom to report and what role he performs, this indicates a weak organizational culture. For whom the employee is directly responsible, the overall purpose of the organization and the main activities. It follows from this that employees must clearly understand

The significance of the work, its order, reporting, relationship with other processes, links.

Management style, which is reduced to a set of the most characteristic and sustainable methods for solving typical problems and developing managerial decisions, taking into account the peculiarities of mutual understanding of officials subordinate to this leader.

35. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS PARAMETERS

Organizational culture is, first of all, a characteristic of an organization, which includes a complex of stably existing criteria, traits. For the first time, organizational culture as a category of management was developed in the 80s in the USA. A significant influence on the formation of the concept was provided by such scientific areas as research in the field of construction management, organization theory and research on organizational behavior.

Organizational culture is the prevailing in the organization and shared by the majority of its members a set of values, norms and principles that allows you to identify the organization in the external environment and achieve effective internal integration.

Studies of group behavior have shown that under the influence of organizational culture, the behavior of its individual members is formed, since organizational culture is built by people working in the organization and has individual features (there is no organization with the same culture). It should be noted that the basis of organizational culture is, first of all, the needs of people, the needs of the organization. Therefore, controlling the direction of change, adjusting the organizational culture, it is necessary to identify the needs of the individual, the organization.

Organizational culture has an impact on the effectiveness of the organization as a whole, but it is important to note that it manifests itself in the activities of people, primarily management personnel, in the structure of the organization, as well as the processes taking place in it. Research results have shown that organizational culture can contribute to the survival of the organization, achieving the highest results, but can lead to bankruptcy. That is, a modern leader needs to theoretically comprehend the parameters of organizational culture, but also be able to apply them in practice. This is especially true for senior managers who need to delve deeply into the essence of the internal and external environment, in particular public relations.

Organizational culture consists of the following components:

Philosophy that defines the meaning of the existence of the organization and its relationship to employees and customers; the dominant values on which the organization is based;

Norms shared by employees of the organization; the rules by which the “game” is played in the organization; the climate that exists in the organization and manifests itself in what the atmosphere is in the organization;

Behavioral rituals expressed in the organization of certain ceremonies.

36. PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND DIAGNOSIS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

1. Joint work generates proposals from employees about organizational values and ways to follow these values.

2. Generality. Prefers not only knowledge, values, attitudes, customs, but also many other things used by the group to meet the existing needs of the members of this group.

3. The main elements of the culture of the organization do not require proof, they themselves, of course.

4. Hierarchy and priority. Every culture offers a ranking of values.

5. Consistency, it is assumed that organizational culture is a system and each link in the system can cause certain complications in achieving the goal and cause failures in the management of the existence and development of the organization.

Thus, these properties of organizational culture can destroy the organization or, on the contrary, elevate it.

The formation of organizational culture involves:

Defining the mission and core values of the organization;

Participation of personnel in the managerial impact on culture;

Formulation of employee behavior standards;

Development of traditions, symbols, history of the company;

Involvement of internal and external specialists;

Conducting corporate seminars, trainings, role-playing and psychological games, etc.

Organizational culture performs the following functions:

External (adaptation)

Internal (integration)

Organizational culture is associated with history, legend, symbolism, etc. The history of the development of the company - the values, traditions that are passed on to the newcomer. Based on the life of the company, new employees are given the opportunity to understand the main mission of the organization, the features of mutual understanding of its members. The situation he heard helps to comprehend the existing disputes of the impact on the mistakes that can be made by him and warned in time.

The symbols of the organization are of great importance in the formation of culture, emphasizing the belonging of people to a single whole.

Diagnostics of organizational culture is an opportunity for a specialist to study documents, provisions of the organization, reporting material. This is possible in a situation of confidential communication with people at all levels. The information obtained can be presented in the form of tables, graphs, creating a profile of organizational culture, which includes the content of values, their consistency. The results obtained in organizational culture depend on and directly indicate the features of management.

Managing organizational culture means shaping, strengthening and changing it.

37. ALGORITHM OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESTRUCTURING

For the conditions for the implementation of work in a new team, a complex psychological restructuring is often necessary; this algorithm must begin with the construction of an ideal end result. For construction, the Levy method is used, such constructions are called. zebras, because they have a black and white list.

Table 1. Estimated zebra.

The first column - advantages, the second - disadvantages.

Analyzing this table, a table "Zebra B - target" is constructed, in which there are also 2 columns, 1 - ideals, 2 - goals.

Algorithm:

1) understand for yourself the essence new work and the necessary qualities

2) learn

3) assess the level of their own need to do a new thing

4) leave the thought of a new activity

5) Build the perfect end result for yourself

6) assess the degree of discrepancy between the ideal and the real

7) decide to rebuild according to the ideal end result

8) draw up an individual rebuilding program for each factor

9) start implementing the program, moving from more significant factors to less significant ones

10) involve the closest assistants of employees in the same work

Implementation of implicit goals requires additional study and analysis, which can be implemented using the introspection tree.

The 3xA principle for active engagement:

1. appearance

3. attitude

38. PARADIGMS OF INTERACTION

Correctly building interaction between people means choosing the right paradigm, which is m / b different for different situations. These paradigms proceed from the fact that no matter what position a person holds, they are not independent, they are constantly in a state of dependence with other people, which means that they find themselves in the position of a person influencing other people.

Paradigms:

1) won - won (disposition to seek mutual benefit of people)

2) won - lost (winning one - losing the other) is typical for an authoritarian leadership style

3) lost - won (she does not have her own criteria, such people are ready to please, they easily fall under the influence)

4) lost - lost (occurs inevitably when two people converge with "win-lose" attitudes)

5) won (this alternative is inherent in people who do not necessarily wish others to lose, this approach is most often found in everyday negotiations)

6) won - won, or "do not mess" (give up the agreement and remain in neutral interaction with each other)

The goal of the paradigm is to unify all stimuli.

Stages of creating a paradigm:

1. analysis of methods and forms of incentives for employees and the possibility of their use in specific conditions

2. analysis of actual needs and job satisfaction of employees

3. Comparison of analysis results

4. choice of methods and forms of stimulation

5. introduction of a motivational program

6. checking the effectiveness and methods of stimulation, as well as correction, if necessary.

39. BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATION

The modern organization is a dynamically developing system. In the EP, socio-economic organizations are analyzed - planned, intentionally created social education designed to solve economic problems.

Organizational behavior is homeostatic, i.e. able to maintain the most important parameters within acceptable limits in the event of unexpected changes, disorders and complications. Organizations counteract disruptive influences and enhance beneficial influences by maintaining the stability of their internal environment and external relations and ensuring their development. The ability to self-preservation and development in the long term is called superstability.

The behavior of the organization in modern conditions should be analyzed in the context of the features and patterns of its interaction with the external and internal environment. In this regard, the adaptability of the organization as the ability to adapt its behavior to diverse changes in external and internal factors is of particular importance.

The choice of a specific form of behavior of the organization determines its optimality - the use of rational means and activities. This forms the effectiveness of the organization, which as a whole can be defined as the achievement of goals at the lowest cost.

An analysis of an organization's behavior requires an analysis of its relationships with various entities: the state, founders, consumers, suppliers, employees, management, etc. At the same time, assessments of the organization's behavior made from different positions may be contradictory. To increase the objectivity and reliability of the analysis of the organization's behavior, it is necessary to conduct it regularly, based on modern ideas about the patterns and mechanisms of organizational behavior.

Any organization is a dual unity of managerial relations - formal and personalized.

Formalized relationships - orient workers to establish and comply with strict requirements, providing top-down impact.

Formalized managerial relations can be:

Autocratic - employees obey the will of the leader;

Technocratic - workers are subject to the production process;

Bureaucratic - employees obey the organizational order to the detriment of the interests of the case.

Personalized relationships - focus on "soft" requirements, providing employees with independence in solving problems.

They can be:

Democratic - involving personnel in the management of the organization;

Humanistic - focused on human relations;

Innovative - encouraging creativity and innovation in the organization.

The behavior of the organization should be oriented towards a harmonious combination of formalized and personalized attitudes and orientations in order to establish cooperation in the organization. Cooperation is assessed as an integral characteristic of the organization's behavior, the basis of partnership, equality, solidarity, mutual respect and responsibility.

Cooperation indicators are:

Efficiency - the degree of achievement of a common goal;

Efficiency - the rationality of achieving the goal;

Meaningfulness - the perception of the goal and readiness for joint efforts;

Ethics is a means to an end.

Studying the behavior of an organization requires an analysis of its demographic parameters. This approach is based on the biological theory of A. Marshall's company, which represents organizational development based on the method of biological analogies: organizations, like living organisms, are born, develop, and are liquidated. The dynamics of these processes in today's highly competitive environment is very high. The experience of many countries shows that up to 80% of firms live no more than 3-5 years. This situation is due to the fact that the market economy has a Darwinian nature: organizations succeed when they satisfy the desires of consumers more effectively than their competitors.

40. PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

In modern economic practice, the relationship of the organization with the majority of market entities should be based on the principles of marketing. Marketing is the activity of identifying and meeting the needs of the market for a variety of goods and services. Marketing should be considered as an economic, social, managerial and technological process based on the following basic principles:

Constant study of the state and dynamics of the market,

Adaptation to market conditions, taking into account the requirements and capabilities of end users,

Active formation of the market in the directions necessary for the organization.

Management of the organization's behavior based on the principles of marketing should ensure work in a dynamic, continuous (ring) mode, which ensures the organization's flexibility and adaptability to turbulent changes in the market environment.

The purpose of managing the organization's behavior based on the principles of marketing is to determine the promising areas of the organization's activities in the market that provide the organization's competitive advantages with minimal resources.

Behavioral marketing in a broad sense means the orientation of behavior to the market. Behavioral marketing in the activities of the organization is the activity of managing the behavior of individuals, groups and the organization as a whole in their interaction with market entities based on the principles of marketing.

Behavioral marketing integrates the activities of all structural elements of the organization, individual actions and tools, processes occurring in the organization, and orients them to market needs. At the same time, behavioral marketing defines the market as the interaction of all environmental factors that affect the performance of the organization.

Anticipating the development of the situation, adapting to changes means developing, competing, and achieving success. Successful existence is possible only taking into account the most complex interweaving of the changing external and internal environments of the organization, global trends in the development of society.

Behavioral marketing has a significant impact on organizational behavior, which is reflected in the organization's relationship system:

1) in the external environment (with consumers, suppliers, intermediaries, competitors, partners, owners, management bodies, the public);

2) in the internal environment (intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, personal-group, intraorganizational relations).

The marketing approach in organizational behavior is implemented on the basis of a situational approach, i.e. taking into account the synergistic interaction (at every moment) of all factors of the external and internal environment of the organization.

Behavioral marketing is based on a client-oriented ideology that determines the behavior of staff and the organization as a whole. Moreover, a new meaning is being put into the concept of "client", it does not mean only a direct buyer (consumer) of a product or service.

41. MANAGING THE BEHAVIOR OF THE ORGANIZATION'S CUSTOMER

An important component of organizational behavior is the attitude towards the clientele of the organization (consumers, buyers, partners). The formation of this component should also be based on the principles of the marketing concept of management.

There are four types of behavior of employees in relation to the clientele of the organization.

Clientele type of behavior - the behavior of the staff, focused on the full and comprehensive satisfaction of customer requests and their active involvement in mutually beneficial relationships. It is most characteristic of the marketing orientation of the firm. In its formation, the following are of great importance: the meeting of clients, the manner of communication, its form and content, the professionalism of the staff and other elements that create a positive attitude and a constructive atmosphere of business communication.

Anti-client type of behavior - the behavior of staff that repels the client. It can manifest itself in two ways. In the first case, the client can be repelled by situations; in the second case, the client is repelled by the employees themselves.

Pseudo-client type of behavior is the behavior of the staff, which both attracts and alarms the client. Its essence is an exaggeratedly attentive attitude towards the client. This behavior is characterized by certain socio-psychological features that give rise to conflicting feelings in the client.

Selective-client (selective) type of behavior - the behavior of staff that attracts some customers and repels others. This type is associated with awareness of one's own importance and the choice, as a rule, of the most prestigious and profitable clients. It is a combination of client and anti-client types of behavior in relation to different subjects of interaction. In the practice of interaction between an organization and clients, combined behaviors can occur. The development of a marketing concept of behavior involves two important behavioral areas: - preventive (preventive) behavior - focused on preventing risks and breakdowns in work with clients;

Compensatory behavior - failures and breakdowns in any situations are compensated by the success of the leader in other areas. Behavioral marketing forms a certain type of marketing behavioral culture of the organization, the defining features of which are: the organization's market orientation; image regulators of behavior; organization's behavior towards customers; socially responsible marketing; marketing behavioral environment.

42. BEHAVIORAL ORIENTATION OF STAFF

The marketing behavioral environment is the highest form of development of the organization's behavioral orientation.

Industrial orientation - characterized by an undeveloped behavioral culture, suppressed image regulators, the prevalence of one's own interests. There is a pretentious image adjustment, the signs of which are distorted ideas about entrepreneurship and market relations.

Sales orientation - is characterized by the emergence of a behavioral culture, the primitive formation of an image, which is provided by advertising in order to stimulate sales. There is a declarative image setting of personnel with signs of entrepreneurship and attempts to adapt to market relations.

Opportunistic orientation - characterized by the growth of behavioral culture, where image regulators begin to actively influence the consciousness of the staff and form important social norms of behavior. There is an instrumental image setting, the signs of which are developed entrepreneurship and the use of all market opportunities.

The regulatory levers of behavior are medium-term goals, the formation of a positive image, the choice of the optimal pricing policy, responsible advertising, respect for the interests of customers, and attention to after-sales service.

Marketing orientation - is characterized by the development of a high-level behavioral culture, in which image regulators are comprehended by the staff as a social necessity. They become norms-incentives, prompting the satisfaction of the needs of target consumer groups and the realization of the mission of the organization. There is a target image setting of personnel based on self-regulation of behavior and improvement of interaction between market entities.

In the practical activities of the organization, various types of behavioral orientation can be combined with each other.

The main task of behavioral marketing is to form a marketing behavioral environment based on marketing orientation.

Thus, each type of behavioral orientation reflects a certain level of the organization's behavioral culture, of which the marketing behavioral orientation is the most effective.

Behavioral marketing of organizational behavior is the most effective direction of personnel behavioral orientation, which allows to achieve effective organizational development based on the full and comprehensive satisfaction of market needs.

In general, the formation of a marketing behavioral culture is a complex and lengthy process that requires the mobilization of all types of resources and significant efforts on the part of the management and staff of the organization.

43. MODELS OF NATIONAL CULTURE

National culture is a well-established set of value orientations, behavioral norms, traditions and stereotypes, adopted in a given country or group of countries and assimilated by an individual. An important component of any national culture is the national business culture - a manifestation of culture in the business sphere.

The national business culture determines the most important parameters of the management system: leadership style, motivation system, negotiating style, attitude to laws and regulations, communication and interpersonal relationships in the organization.

Features of the national business culture depend on historical, religious, climatic, social and other factors, develop under the influence of the specific social environment of a given region (country). The national business culture determines the formation of different systems of values and preferences, behavioral models and stereotypes. The most typical contrasts of national cultures are individualistic, group and clan. Comparative characteristics of American, Japanese and Arab business cultures: patterns of behavior ) approach, cultivation of individualism, orientation to utilitarianism. The Japanese model of business culture most fully absorbed the achievements of the national culture, which is based on collectivism, identification of the individual with the group, striving for achievements and harmony.

The European model recognizes the need for rationalism in behavior and at the same time focuses on creative learning and self-development.

Different cultures show different models of organizational behavior, up to the opposite ones, in several ways.

1. Attitude to time: - monochronic - consistency, phased organization of labor activity, concentration on one thing in a specific period, attitude to time as an important limited resource, accuracy and punctuality are valued. It is typical for representatives of business cultures in the USA, England, Germany, Scandinavia, etc.;

Polychronous - the combination in time of several cases that are not always brought to completion, the attitude towards time as an unlimited, endless and inexhaustible resource. Typical for Asian, Latin American, Arab countries, southern Europe, Spain and Portugal. Obviously, Russia also gravitates towards polychronic culture.

2. Attitude towards nature (environment):

Nature is regarded as an object subordinate to man, a source for satisfying needs. Interaction with nature is seen as a struggle to obtain certain resources or material benefits from nature. This approach is inherent in most developed countries; - man is a part of nature and must live in harmony with it (for example, Asian countries, Japan).

Russia was previously characterized by the first type, but now, due to environmental problems, we are moving to the second type.

Man's attitude to nature is reflected in stereotypes of behavior and assessments of current events.

3. Interpersonal relationships. Researchers from different schools identify up to 30 parameters related to the characteristics of interpersonal relations among representatives of different national cultures.

Managers operating at the international level must know and take into account the various nuances of business relations associated with the specifics of the perception of individual components of culture and life: speech, demeanor, business correspondence and appearance, office interior, non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, posture, gestures, personal space), gifts and souvenirs, exchange of business cards, appeals, greetings, tips, etc.

Knowledge of the cultural values prevailing in Russian society is also necessary for foreign professionals who work in Russia and have business ties with its citizens, whose cultural values and historical heritage differ from their own.

Further globalization of world relations, openness of borders, interpenetration of national cultures necessitate the use of socio-cultural management technologies that make it possible to implement a new managerial socio-cultural paradigm

Due to the socio-cultural content, the organizational behavior of multinational companies can be based not only on respect for the individual, regardless of social origin, ethnicity and nationality, gender, age, religion, etc., but also on stimulating the cultural diversity of personnel, accumulating national potential, using mental work patterns like necessary condition sustainable development of the organization in the cross-cultural space.

44. INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

An important feature of the development of the world community in early XXI in. is the formation of a single economic space based on the processes of globalization and internationalization. This means a new stage of development international business aimed at creating economic networks in different countries.

Accordingly, the boundaries of organizational behavior are expanding, allowing us to consider the patterns and characteristics of behavior not only at the level of individuals, groups or organizations, but also the main parameters of the behavior of the national economic system generally. Ignoring by the manager of national peculiarities of organizational behavior is the cause of conflicts, makes it difficult to establish contacts and find profitable partners in the international business system. The conflicts arising on this basis, as a rule, are acute and protracted due to the great emotional potential of people's ethnic self-awareness, the possibility of rapid consolidation of all persons of a certain community along ethnic lines.

National culture has a significant impact on the behavior of people in an organization and generally positions this organization in an international environment.

The international context in business is realized in various forms: work in an international team, management of a multicultural organization, communication with people belonging to different ethnic groups and confessions, etc.

With the beginning of the era of globalization of the economy in the 1970s. a new direction arose - cross-cultural (comparative) management, i.e. management at the intersection of cultures - national, business, corporate. The rapid development of a new direction began in the late 1980s - early 1990s. thanks to the research of G. Hofstede, F. Trompenaars, E. Hall and others. Cross-cultural management focuses on the study of behavioral characteristics inherent in various national business cultures, on the development of practical recommendations for improving the efficiency of managing global organizations with a multinational field of activity.

The ability to identify cross-cultural features of management is no less important at the micro level: on the scale of a separate organizational or corporate culture that has multinational characteristics.

This is especially true for Russia, where representatives of more than a hundred nations and nationalities live, actively interacting with each other in the organizational and interorganizational space.

45. TYPES OF ORG BEHAVIOR MODELS

46. GROUP DECISION-MAKING METHODS

Leading Japanese companies have achieved a high level in the use of positive factors of employee awareness and participation in decision-making, in particular, by developing the system of "Quality Circles". This same organizational form effectively works in the direction of training employees, improving their skills, development. Collective decision-making, the promotion of new ideas requires managers to have knowledge and ability to organize such events as brainstorming, the Delphi method, the Gordon method, expert surveys, modeling, business games, consideration of business situations, etc. The labor intensity and high demands on the professionalism of the organizers of collective mental activity, as a rule, are justified by high economic and socio-psychological results, allow the organization to remain competitive, developing, and the team to be highly productive, united, and people to be satisfied with work and membership in the team and organization.

To determine many situations of collective problem solving, collective activity, the concept of "dispute" is suitable. Let us use the definition given in the book by L. G. Pavlova “Dispute, discussion, controversy”: a dispute is any clash of opinions, disagreement in points of view on any issue, subject, a struggle in which each side defends its rightness. Often the words are perceived as synonyms for this word: discussion, debate, controversy, debate, debate. But often in the scientific literature these concepts reflect separate types of disputes.

The decision-making process is associated with the use of various strategies: reactive strategy, active strategy, integrated strategy.

The reactive strategy is associated with the passive expectation of changes in the external and internal environment of the organization and the response to these changes as a fait accompli. Supporters of this strategy save costs, but suffer from "myopia" and passivity, which is fraught with significant losses in the competitive struggle.

An active internal strategy involves active preparation for future events, proactive changes in the internal environment of the company (changes in priorities, redistribution of resources, structural reorganizations, etc.).

An active external strategy involves the use of various opportunities to influence the external environment of the organization through advertising, contacts with the public, with authorities, with other firms, and so on.

A strategy aimed at integrating internal and external processes implies the implementation of an active internal and external strategy based on the activities of strategic planning groups that analyze trends in changes in the external and internal environment of the organization, develop scenarios for possible scenarios and proposals for achieving the best results in a particular scenario .

At the first stage of the business game, its goal is formulated, the necessary initial information is given, teams are formed - small groups, and their activities are organized.

At the second stage, collective discussions of the problem are held in small groups, knowledge and experience are exchanged, group positions and points of view on solving the problem are developed.

At the third stage, an intergroup discussion is held, discussion of the reports of each small group, development of a common decision.

Consideration of specific situations is organized similarly, i.e., decision-making using an analysis of the parameters of a specific situation taken from practice. If the situation is known, there are already solution precedents, the problem is solved in a standard way. If the situation is similar to the previously taken place and resolved, its resolution may be in the way of adaptation, optimization of already made decisions. If the situation is unknown, it is necessary to search for a new solution method, including the use of collective mental activity.

The Delphi method can be considered as a method of mathematical processing of expert opinions: each of them ranks ideas according to their importance, assigns to each rank one or another number of points according to the accepted system, then the results are processed, and the idea that scored the most points is recognized as the most important.

W. Gordon's method is the method of synectics, i.e., the connection of the heterogeneous, therefore the participants are representatives of different fields of knowledge. The Gordon discussion scheme is similar to the brainstorming scheme, but verbal associations and a spread of reference elements for comparison that may seem inappropriate are encouraged. For example, the properties of incompatible "objects" - a teapot and a cat - can be compared (by the way, as a result of the comparison, the idea was born to create a "meowing" teapot, that is, a teapot with a whistle). The method of analogy is used when the participants in the discussion try to personify themselves with the subject of discussion. The method involves the division of the participants in the discussion into two groups: the first consists of idea generators - "seeders". Sometimes they do not even set a clear goal - in the expectation of the appearance of completely original proposals from the sphere of related, and sometimes distant areas of knowledge. The second group consists of experts who, after putting forward a mass of ideas by generators, comprehend and select ideas. Generators are usually the most active members of the group, possessing erudition and their own position. The organizers of the discussion should ensure an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation. The process of finding a solution and being in such a group usually provides high job satisfaction and contributes to team cohesion and increased productivity.

Business games and case studies are recognized methods of collaborative problem solving and active learning.

Business games are a reproduction of the activities of economic managers and management personnel, game modeling of management processes. Games can be divided into educational, production and research, although other typologies exist. The organization of a business game requires serious preparation and sometimes the involvement of consultants - specialists. The organization of the game involves consideration of the same stages as in the discussion. However, the preparation of a production business game aimed at developing a forecast for the development of an organization should include the collection and presentation to participants of analytical information relevant to the issue under consideration, and sometimes variant calculations of the business plan. To the extent necessary, information processing tools should be provided and conditions should be created for working in groups and joint work of all participants. Of particular difficulty is the need to create an atmosphere of competition while maintaining goodwill and focus on the subject of discussion.

There are a number of ways to organize joint mental activity, including the above-mentioned "brainstorming", "Delphi method", "Gordon method", etc.

Brainstorming (brainstorming) should have a clear goal, include the following steps: silent generation of ideas, random enumeration of ideas, clarification of ideas, voting and ranking the importance of ideas to achieve the goal. Types of brainstorming: direct, reverse (starts with criticism of ideas), double (the number of participants exceeds the optimal number by two or three times with a corresponding increase in the duration of the event), a conference of ideas (usually for 4-12 people for 2-3 days), individual "brain assault” (to himself and a generator of ideas, and a critic). As for the optimal number of brainstorming participants, here the opinions of experts differ: who prefers to focus on the "Miller number", i.e. 5-9 people, who expands the interval to 7-15 people. Stages of brainstorming:

1) the breakdown of the group into “generators of ideas” and “criticizing the work of the subgroup can change roles”;

2) the vigorous activity of generators to put forward any proposals for solving the problem, the formation of an array of proposals;

3) the active work of critics in sorting the proposal into successful, unsuccessful, controversial;

4) discussion of controversial proposals;

5) discussion of the accepted set of proposals, their elaboration, development of feasibility studies, ranking according to a set of significant advantages and disadvantages. Next - work in accordance with the scenario of target management.

47. PROGRAM FOR CONSTRUCTION OF MODELS OF BEHAVIOR

The program includes 5 steps:

Stage 1: Determining the elements of behavior that affect the work of employees

Stage 2: Assessing how often this behavior is leading

Stage 3: Identification of random elements of behavior

Stage 4a: Development of an impact strategy

Stage 4b: Application of the developed strategy

Stage 4c: Summing up the dynamics of the necessary elements that appear in the behavior after the impact

Stage 4d: Maintaining the desired behavior

Stage 5: Evaluation of the improvement of the work performed

Stage 1 of the model is necessary, because from the point of view of production, not all elements of behavior are valuable, first of all, it is necessary to highlight the elements of behavior that are critical for a given employee.

Stage 2 determines how often critical elements appear.

Stage 3 identifies those random actions that are not desired and determines the low level of performance.

After such an analysis at 4 steps, a strategy for influencing employees is developed and applied, which allows you to strengthen or consolidate the desirable elements and stop the negative ones.

48. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AS A FACTOR OF FORMING THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANIZATION

The behavior of an organization is largely determined by the configuration of the management system - an organizational structure that reflects the composition and relationships between its units and levels of management. The effectiveness of the functioning of the structure, to a greater extent than the formal distribution of functions between departments, depends on human behavior. With this in mind, the organizational structure should be understood as an ordered set of stably interconnected elements that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as a whole.

The behavior of the organization depends on the types of organizational structure, which are usually divided into the following types:

Bureaucratic (mechanistic) - include functional, linear, linear-functional and divisional (product, consumer, regional specialization structures);

Organic (adaptive) - include project, matrix, program-target and group (team) structures;

Innovative - include modular, integrated, conglomerate, atomistic, multidimensional, network, virtual and other structures.

Bureaucratic structures are based on the formalization of the organization's behavior and limit the activities of personnel by regulating actions and labor operations. Formalization of behavior makes it possible to reduce its variability and, ultimately, to manage and predict organizational behavior.

Organic structures are characterized by a flexible structure, coordination of organizational behavior based on mutual agreement and cooperation. In organic structures, there is no standardization of the behavior of the organization; they allow solving innovative problems.

The less predictable, more dynamic, and more complex the environment, the more bureaucratic structures are replaced by organic or organic structures partially included in the bureaucratic.

Innovative structures are characterized by high adaptability and openness, "intelligence", which determines the organization's ability to self-learning, self-development and advanced self-management.

The structure of the organization directly affects the efficiency of its functioning, so it must be flexible and dynamic. In industrialized countries, the management structures of corporations change on average every three to five years, depending on the state of the organization.

The dynamics of organizational development requires a rational design of the organization in order to create an effective management mechanism. The formation of such a mechanism should be based not only on experience, analogies, habitual schemes and intuition, but also on scientific methods of organizational design. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the organizational structure is a behavioral system in which people and the groups they form constantly enter into various relationships to solve common problems.

The methodology for constructing an organization includes three stages:

Composition stage - the formation of a common block diagram management apparatus (goals and problems of the organization, hierarchy and links, centralization and decentralization, forms of interaction with the external environment);

Structurization stage - determination of the composition of the main units and the links between them (division of labor and specialization, departmentalization and cooperation, coordination, distribution of powers and responsibilities);

Stage of regulation - development of regulatory characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures for management activities (establishment of job responsibilities, composition of units, development of service regulations and procedures for performing work, determining the labor intensity of work).

The design of the organization provides for a combination of scientific approaches with export-analytical work, the study of advanced domestic and foreign experience. The criterion for the effectiveness of organizational design is the full and sustainable achievement of the organization's goals.

The dynamism of the external and internal environment of the organization determines the increasing importance of situational organizational design, which determines the choice of the structure of the organization by changing various factors (strategy and tactics of the organization, technology, personnel, challenges of competitors, market requirements, etc.).

In the early 1960s, the term organizational behavior arose. At that time, several areas of scientific disciplines were united, dealing with the explanation of the behavior of people and groups in the organization, as well as organizations in the external environment. A historical survey of the field of research shows quite clearly that organizational behavior emerged from disciplines such as psychology and social Psychology, sociology of labor, theory and sociology of organizations, business research, management science (administration), ethics and law.

In addition, there is a certain socio-cultural background for the manifestation of the phenomenon to be studied. For example, according to E.G. Mall, in Russia, the features of organizational behavior are now manifested in the process of the following constant changes in the socio-economic environment:

changing connections and relationships that previously remained stable for a long time;

change in old organizations and the emergence of new ones;

a significant expansion of international relations and the emergence on this basis of a network of foreign enterprises and branches of transnational companies in the country;

promotion of the level of uncertainty and risk in the business sphere;

business criminalization.

Organizational behavior is a discipline that studies the behavior of people in organizations (both individuals and groups).

The subject of organizational behavior is the basic patterns and determinants that determine the behavior of people in certain situations in working conditions and communication.

Knowledge of the basics of organizational behavior helps to increase the efficiency of labor activity, since the relationship of people in an organization is an important factor influencing the final result pursued or by the organization. organizational behavior labor evaluation

Organizational behavior is a scientific discipline, therefore, it has its own theories that are applied in practice.

Today in management there is a trend towards increased attention to human resources. Therefore, a modern leader needs such skills and knowledge that will help to use human resources more effectively, preventing conflicts, stresses and various organizational dysfunctions.

There are many definitions of organizational behavior, including the following: it is a complex applied science of managing human behavior in an organization based on the theory and systematic scientific analysis of the actions of individuals, groups and organizations as a whole in a complex dynamic environment.

In any field that deals with the evolving human phenomenon, approaches that require consideration of disagreements and conflicts cannot be ruled out. Organizational behavior is undoubtedly influenced by forces that pull it in different directions.

Organizational behavior is a subject that has branched out into many different directions. On the one hand, from the point of view of its psychological sociological foundations, it seeks to explain organizational phenomena, as any other fundamental discipline does.

Organizational behavior is a developing science, in which not only there are many approaches and schools that provide answers to the demands of management practice, but there are also many open questions that require further improvement. This is a complex applied science about the behavior of the subjects of the organization - people, groups, the team as a whole - in a changing external environment. These subjects of organizations are objects of research, but due to their inherent activity, due to their living nature, it is methodologically incorrect to perceive them as simply "objects", just as it is incorrect to say that the process of controlling their behavior is reduced to influencing them: a more adequate concept the word "interaction" appears. It is more correct to perceive the objects of research themselves as an object-subject. The subject of research in organizational behavior is the patterns of behavior and social, socio-economic and psychological factors that determine the behavior of people in organizations and organizations in the external environment.

Modern changes in technological processes, internationalization of the economy, development information technologies, customer-oriented quality management, recognition of the existing diversity of workers and their management led to a change in the management paradigm. The new approach is to recognize the primacy of the individual in the organization, its knowledge and skills for effective operation.

An individual who comes to work in an organization assumes a number of restrictions on his behavior, dictated by the regulations, the norms of this organization, the corporate code of conduct. In the XX century. the employer entered into a moral contract with the employee, according to which, in exchange for loyalty to the organization and the willingness to follow instructions
the employee received guarantees of employment, career growth, material remuneration.

Today employers need knowledge much more than simple performing discipline. The ability to learn begins to be valued above devotion. As a result, there appears new type an organizational contract that has the character of a commercial partnership: the parties undertake to cooperate as long as it is beneficial to each of them, but to cooperate
with maximum return in the form of creativity on the part of the employee and the creation of conditions for this creativity on the part of the organization.

As a result, relations within the organization change, the market component (component) is strengthened in them, which is a more rigid form of relationship that requires adequate behavior of both the employee and the employer. This provision makes the development of modern approaches to teaching organizational behavior in the preparation of specialists for work in a changing environment particularly relevant.

organizational behavior as academic discipline is a complex field of knowledge that explores various phenomena and processes, covering a large amount of specific terms and concepts associated with many social and natural science disciplines. To study them, you need a certain system that facilitates the process of mastering the discipline.

The behavior of individuals is essentially determined by the purpose and objectives that the organization sets for itself, by the restrictions that it imposes on the individual.

The purpose of organizational behavior is to study the patterns of organizational behavior of an individual, modern forms and methods of influencing its behavior, the principles of forming groups united by common goals and identifying the features of substantiating methods of influencing organizational behavior, which helps to increase the efficiency of the entire organization.

Despite the complication of problems at all levels of analysis - personal, group and organizational - the orientation of organizational behavior towards its practical use in company management remains and will develop in the future. This means developing accessible, understandable and applicable methods, the use of which in the management of people will allow the organization to achieve its goals with maximum benefit.

The realization that people are the most valuable resource of an organization leads to a change in behavioral paradigms, to a humanistic orientation of organizational behavior, its social orientation. The behavior of the organization is becoming more and more directed towards social justice for employees, balancing the interests of employees and the company, social responsiveness and responsibility to society.

The essence of organizational behavior lies in the systematic, scientific analysis of the behavior of individuals, groups, organizations in order to understand
predict and improve the individual performance and functioning of the organization, taking into account the impact of the external environment. Organizational behavior involves the study and formation of the behavior of individuals, groups to achieve the organization's goals and improve the efficiency of its activities. Organizational behavior is a multidiscipline (cross-discipline) because it uses principles and methods borrowed from other disciplines: organization theory, psychology, social psychology, management, personnel management. In turn, organizational behavior is the basis for the study
a whole range of management disciplines. Organizational behavior has a clear cash orientation within the group, its behavior: people
within the group, their feelings, sensations, susceptibility to the new, reaction to the environment.

So, organizational: multidiscipline; focused on the individual in the organization: focused on performance; takes into account the impact of the external environment.

The subject of organizational behavior is the relationship of the management system at all levels with a focus on the development of effective
management methods in a competitive environment of functioning.

Organizational behavior studies relations in the management system at all levels with a focus on the development of effective management methods in a competitive environment: cooperation; power and control; property; non-production.

Methods for researching organizational behavior:

- surveys - interviews, questionnaires, testing, measuring the level of satisfaction with work, the organizational climate of the team;

- collection of fixed information - the study of documents that exist in the organization and regulate the activities of employees and groups (charter of the organization, corporate code of conduct, contracts, job descriptions, regulations on divisions);

- observations - the study of the situation, the state of the workplace, the appearance of employees in accordance with the requirements of organizational culture;

– experiments - carrying out laboratory or natural experiments;

- Internet using.

stages of development of organizational behavior

Organizational behavior (OB) as a new scientific discipline began to develop in the 50s. 20th century The term "organizational
Behavior” arose when several areas of scientific disciplines that study the processes occurring in an organization, between organizations, between the internal and external environment have been combined. Thus, organizational behavior has absorbed such disciplines as industrial engineering, sociology of work, social psychology, business research, management theory and law.

The science of organizational behavior is subdivided on the basis of a number of criteria into more specialized subjects. The main criteria are:

– level of aggregation (generalization) and analysis;

– specific aspects of organizational life;

- features related to the goals of companies, products or services;

- criteria for dividing the organization into parts, etc.

Organizational behavior is a combination of at least two traditional sciences in business schools:

1) schools of management (management);

2) schools of "human relations".

classical school. Scientific management is based on the work of a number of managers, consultants and researchers (F. Taylor, A. Fayol, G. Ford, etc.), who, despite the fact that they approached the study of the organization from different points of view, developed a number of concepts and ideas, having a lot in common. These ideas were very popular in the first decades.
the last century.

Scientific management focuses on the productivity of the individual worker. As the society of the twentieth century
became more and more industrial, it became increasingly difficult for firms to increase their productivity.

Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915), an American mechanical engineer, suggested that the problem was primarily
lack of management practices. The subject of his research is the position of workers in the system of machine production (finally formed by late XIX in.). Taylor wrote that "the principle object of management should be the maximum guarantee of the prosperity of the employer (the development of each industry) combined with the maximum prosperity of each employee."

The philosophy of F. Taylor was based on the position that managerial decisions are made on the basis of scientific analysis and facts, and not guesswork. The ideas of F. Taylor became widespread in industrial economies in the 1920s-1930s.

Administrative management focuses on leaders and the functions they perform. This approach to management was most fully developed by Henri Fayol (1841-1925), a French mining engineer whose main point of view was formed at the beginning of the 20th century. Fayol rose to prominence when he revived a mining company that was on the verge of collapse and turned it into a financial success. He later attributed his success to the method he applied rather than to his own personal ability. Fayol was the first to recognize that successful managers need to know the basic functions of management. He defined these functions as planning, organization, command (leadership), coordination and control. He also argued that successful managers need to apply certain management principles to these functions.

– the firm's rules, policies and procedures;

– established hierarchy;

- A clear division of labor.

Max Weber (1864-1920), German social historian, most closely associated with bureaucratic management. Weber
noted that management in many European organizations in the XIX century. had a personal basis. Employees often showed more loyalty to individual managers than to the mission of the organization. And, as a result, resources were often used at the will of individual managers, and not in accordance with the goals of the organization. To prevent these dysfunctional consequences, Weber introduced a management system that would be based on impersonal and rational behavior. This type of management is called bureaucracy.

The school of "human relations" - a school that puts the individual and the group factor in the center of attention, arose in the 1920s and 1930s. in the United States as a result of research and experimentation at an enterprise in Hawthorne, near Chicago, and then appeared in other countries. In the USA, its representatives are E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger, W. Mury. in France - J. Friedman.

Professor Elton Mayo (1880-1949), together with a group of colleagues, conducted experiments in Hawthorne at the factories of the Westinghouse Electric Company. The experiments were carried out as part of the study of life in the United States in the section "Labor in America" at the factories of large firms.

Emigrant girls worked day by day in the workshop, the work went on at a silent, dull pace, since everyone was weighed down by material problems. The goal of the program was to clarify the impact of the workplace atmosphere on work. These conditions gradually began to change, labor productivity increased sharply, and after a while it stabilized.

The workers felt the attention to themselves and began to discuss these issues among themselves. Ultimately, informal groups and norms of behavior in them were formed, and, accordingly, control over the observance of these norms, carried out by the leader. Social norms have arisen that regulate labor activity (in this group, no more and no more
less than a certain number of items). Thus, social norms began to perform the functions of production control.

Conclusions on the Hawthorne experiments: the influence of social norms of behavior on labor productivity was determined; revealed the significant role of social incentives in the behavior of members of the organization, in some cases blocking the effect of economic incentives; the priority of group factors of behavior over personal ones was revealed; the importance of informal leadership in the activities of the group is shown.

E. Mayo summarized his views, which go far beyond the scope of his research, in a book called " Social problems industrial culture". The main idea is that you can create an organization that achieves its goals through the satisfaction of the needs of its employees.

In a very short period of time, Mayo managed to turn an "economic", "rational" person into a "social" one. Later generations of behavioral scientists © made this person a "self-actualizing" person, knowing himself and his abilities and realizing his possibilities.

It must be said that the experiments of E. Mayo lay in the general direction of the development of the methodology of science and were based on a systematic view of the world and management.

The systematic approach originates from the work of Alexander Aleksandrovich Bogdanov. (1873-1928) “Tectology. General Organizational Science, published in 1920.

The term "behavior", with the help of which it became possible to reflect the sphere of relations of an individual integral interacting organism with the environment, was introduced by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936). By the way, behaviorism is translated from Latin like behaviour. Thus, one of the main provisions of behaviorism - the possibility of changing human behavior - is based on the phenomenon of a conditioned reflex.

The OP discipline originates from the report of the American management specialists R. Gordon £, and D. Howelom &, who in
1959 published the results of their research, which included a survey of students and teachers of business schools.

Their conclusions showed that the teaching of disciplines such as management, business psychology does not fully reflect the needs of managers.

In the United States, in 1973, the first textbook on organizational behavior appeared, authored by Fred Lutens. In 1999, for the first time in Russia,
translated into Russian the seventh edition of this textbook, which became the first academic textbook on organizational behavior in
in Russian. F. Lutens defines organizational behavior as the science of describing, explaining, predicting and managing human behavior in an organization.

New in the development of organizational behavior is today the direction of studying the behavior of an individual in virtual organizations, the concepts of "behavior" and "organization" are combined in the virtual space, which involves further research. At present, organizational behavior has really turned into a specific area of scientific knowledge related to the practice of effective management of modern complex organizations. This trend should further strengthen in the future.

Changes taking place in the external and internal environment of the organization, the emergence of new types of organizations, new paradigms and
knowledge about human behavior necessitates the development and implementation in practice of new models of organizational behavior that meet the requirements of the time. The new models embody the ideas of partnership, teamwork, involvement, self-control, orientation towards meeting the needs of a higher order, self-realization, high quality of working life, etc.

Thus, schools and approaches of scientific thought can be grouped into three main models - authoritarian, guardianship and supportive.

Let us briefly summarize the main character traits these schools or models.

authoritarian model. The authoritarian, power-based model of organizational behavior dominated the era
industrial revolution. In an autocracy, managers are oriented towards formal, official powers delegated through the right to give orders to subordinates. It is assumed that workers should be directed, forced to work, which is the main task of management. This approach leads to tight management control over
labor process.

In the conditions of autocracy, employees are oriented towards subordination to the leader, due to which there is a psychological dependence on the leader. The level of wages in the organization is at a low level due to the fact that the results of the work of employees are minimal. This circumstance is due to the fact that employees strive to satisfy, first of all, their basic needs and the basic needs of their families.

The authoritarian model was assessed as acceptable in the absence of alternative approaches and is still adequate to certain conditions (for example, for an organization in crisis). New knowledge about the needs of workers and the changing system of social values predetermined the further search for methods of managing organizational systems.

guardianship model. The study of labor relations has shown that although authoritarian leadership does not involve verbal feedback from the subordinate to the boss, "mental feedback" certainly exists.

The success of the guardianship model depends on economic resources. The efforts of the management of the organization are aimed at providing the funds necessary for the payment of salaries and the provision of benefits. Since the physical needs of employees are properly met, the employer considers the need for employees to be safe as the main motivating factor.

Guardianship leads to increased dependence of the employee on the organization, company employees are constantly instilled with thoughts of economic incentives and benefits, and as a result of this kind of psychological processing, they feel quite satisfied with life. However, the feeling of satisfaction is by no means a strong stimulus, it causes passive cooperation, so the effectiveness of the guardianship model only slightly exceeds the performance indicators achieved with an authoritarian approach.

The main advantage of the model is that it gives workers a sense of security and satisfaction. The most obvious shortcoming of the model is that the level of labor efforts of most employees is on the verge of their potential, employees lack motivation to develop their abilities to a higher level.

supporting model. The supportive model of organizational behavior is based on the "principle of supportive relationships"
Rensis Likert. Likert's principle has much in common with the human resource-oriented approach, with the "human relations" school, which has already been discussed in detail above.

It is now recognized that the organization is a social system, the most important element of which is the employee.

Modern research focuses on the human, social factor in the organization. In the management of the organization and personnel, a new approach is currently needed, which should have summarized the research in the field of the behavior of individuals and groups in the organization. As a result, organizational behavior today has combined separate areas of psychology, sociology, pedagogy and other sciences.

There is a certain specificity of management in the broad sense of the word and organizational behavior in particular in different countries and cultures. Allocate specific features of American, European, Japanese management. Speaking about Russian management, it can be noted that it bears the features of different models, is mixed. This implies the great importance of studying both the practice of one's own management and organizational behavior, and foreign ones.

3 Duality of organizational behavior

Organizational behavior is a dual process: on the one hand, the organization itself has an impact on employees, changing their aspirations, desires, imposing certain norms of behavior. The employee needs to reckon with the rules existing in the organization, change completely or partially correct his own behavior if it does not correspond to the required one. On the other hand, the individual also influences the organization. Performing an action, performing an act, expressing thoughts, he influences the organizational environment.

The leaders of any organization (commercial, state) are constantly forced to solve the same problem: how to debug the management system in order to ensure the cooperation of employees in the organization and overcome their possible confrontations in the organizational environment.

The problem of "confrontation - cooperation" turns out to be the main contradiction of organizational behavior, which is either overcome or aggravated. The degree of its solvability is the main indicator of how successfully organizational management is carried out. The highest professional achievements of leaders are the effects of cooperation, and indicators of their lack of professionalism are multiple confrontations.

Situations in the conditions of "confrontation - cooperation" arise throughout the organization: vertically ("top-down" and "bottom-up") - between managers and subordinates, and horizontally - between the employees themselves, departments, services and corporate links, if it is a holding company. Therefore, a certain management system is formed, reproduced, developed in the organization, which balances organizational behavior.

Rice. 1. Alternative models of organizational behavior

On the graph (Fig. 1), the subject of organizational behavior is depicted as two opposite models: A - confrontation of employees; B - cooperation. These models can mutually transform into each other, determining the direction of either organizational development or degradation.

For a firm dominated by the attached type of worker, a high level of mutual agreement is characteristic: the model of his behavior turns out to be rallying, since “joint” problems are solved. And where the alienated type of worker dominates, a high level of disagreement is manifested, and his behavior model turns out to be divisive. In the first case, the employee has a panoramic vision of the entire scope of work. The result of this is a wide range of interactions, mutual support in solving joint problems. Sociocultural relations develop according to the type common Home". In the second case, employees develop a narrowly functional vision of work. Their result is the growth of "inconsistencies", isolation in communications, organizational culture "common home".

With any style of management, labor is evaluated by its result, and the labor process is evaluated by its effectiveness, i.e. degree of goal achievement. The more independent the professional activity, the greater the responsibility of the employee for its result. Modern management at different levels implies independence in decision-making, taking into account internal and external conditions. The higher the qualification of a manager, the more reliable he understands the situation, the more correctly he makes a decision, and predicts the result. The level of manager's competence in assessing economic, political, legal situations in the sphere of his own activity determines the goal setting and the result. If the goal is set correctly, the content (material, intellectual, emotional), methods are selected accordingly, then the goal and result will be adequate.

If functions are clearly distributed in an organization and responsibility is delegated at the level of functions, then the goal, content, methods are set by the same person. In this case, the result of the action is determined by the developed criteria, the effectiveness of the methods of activity. The question "Who is to blame?" does not occur in this situation. It transforms into questions “What to do?” and “Am I ready to do this?”. If failures in activity are repeated, then their introspection arises: whether the tasks are correctly understood, whether the methods are chosen.

When evaluating the effectiveness of organizational behavior, it is important to understand the position of one's own and the partner's (psychological, social, spiritual). It is the position that determines the nature of the actions, behavior in which it manifests itself. Of the many actions that an employee performs, one can see one that will reveal the position taken. If this action is not overlooked and correctly understood, then it is possible to foresee the nature of other actions and behavior, that is, to predict, predict actions.

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