The history of higher education at the end of the 19th century in Russia. The legal status of students in the late XIX - early XX century Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia...

Early 19th century - the time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. Education system first half of XIX in. The case of public education in the post-reform period. Students of the sixties and higher education. Spread of private educational institutions.

Higher education in Russia under Alexander I. The teaching staff, its cultural and scientific level. Higher education in the second quarter of the 19th century. General Rules of the Imperial Universities. The educational system of post-reform Russia.

The struggle for secondary and higher education for women in Russia was an integral part of the social and pedagogical movement that unfolded from the middle of the 18th century, when the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and boarding schools for girls were first created.

Engineering student initiative. Creation of the university. Scientists and specialists of the Odessa Polytechnic University.

The introduction of fees in higher educational institutions. The position of paying students. Charging tuition fees. Fellows. Providing for the poor. Housing status of fellows. Individual scholarships. The ninth conference of the trade union section of the students.

Political life of Russia at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students as a social stratum. Revolutionary movement in the student environment of St. Petersburg. Organizations and leaders of the revolutionary student movement in St. Petersburg.

Organization of new departments. Student practice. Development of MGSU-MISI.

The history of education in Ukraine is closely connected with the entire history of the Ukrainian people. Centuries-old existence in a state of fragmentation, under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, Polish, Lithuanian and Hungarian feudal lords had a strong influence on the development of education.

Prerequisites for the formation of a university in Italy. Political and intellectual life of the world in the era of antiquity. Early in the 11th century, the clerics discovered a shortage of powerful intellectuals and contributed to the university boom. University of Bologna.

Growth in the number of medium general education schools and their graduates in the 60s. Release of specialists with secondary specialized and higher education in the 60s.

Middle school in recent decades Russian Empire The successes of the post-reform development of secondary education were undoubted. If in 1856 there were only 78 gymnasiums and real schools, then by the end of the century - more than 300, and by the beginning of the First World War - about 700. Now the average ...

Working conditions of the school during the war. main body of students. Correction curricula. Changes in the composition of the teaching staff.

The Decembrist uprising in 1825 had a huge impact on all sides social life Russian Empire, including education. The new emperor Nicholas 1 saw one of the reasons for the revolutionary uprisings in the imperfection of the educational system.

CONTROL WORK Topic: "Education system in the XVIII century" CONTENTS: I. Introduction II. Transformations in the education system by Peter I III. University, gymnasium, Academy of Sciences

Control over the direction of lecture courses. The strip of internal reaction in Russia, the curtailment of reforms after the war of 1812-1814. The policy of the Ministry of Public Education in relation to the outlying universities consisted in rapprochement with the Russian order.

Report on the history of a student of the 6th "B" class Timoshkina Ekaterina Brief historical background. century in Europe began to appear the world's first higher schools - universities. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna were founded ...

Lecture on the topic “The Origin of the Higher School of the Russian Empire” Topic 2: The Origin of the Higher School of the Russian Empire. Lecture - 2 hours. Study questions:

Rapprochement of Russia with the West. The first reforms in the field of education. Opening of the Navigation School. Features of teaching in schools. Opening of a medical school in 1706. Library and press under Peter I. Gymnasiums, university courses and academies in Russia.

The system of education of the Russian state in the period of autocracy and in the period of outstanding scientific discoveries (late 19th–early 20th centuries). The formation of the RSFSR in the first post-October decade, the elimination of illiteracy. Activity of the education system in the USSR.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century was marked by the appearance of a large number of students from Russia in Western European universities. This gratifying phenomenon was at first greeted with understanding by the European public.

Introduction

Chapter I

University education and students in Russia in 1850 - early 1860s

Chapter II

Legal status of Russian students

Chapter III

The material and everyday aspect of the situation of students in the second half of the XIX century

Conclusion

Introduction (excerpt)

Russian universities have always been islands of secular culture, education and creativity, which is impossible without some “freedom from”…. Freedom to some extent from power, ideology, freedom from isolation and class. Students have always been a special group of people, which had their own customs, traditions, their own culture and identity. It is the relationship between students and universities, which acted as conductors of state order and politics, that is and was the subject of research by domestic scientists both before the 1917 revolution and after.

The relevance of studying these relations has not disappeared to this day, because the authorities have always sought to put universities under control in order to be able to educate a loyal generation of young people. However, the paradox of such an attitude of power is that it almost never succeeded. Students at all times, even the most severe reaction, were aware of their unity, their interests and defended them in every possible way.

The purpose of this work is to try to solve a difficult dilemma: was the tsarist government the factor that determined not only the development of Russian students, but also predetermined it historical destiny? Did the political weakness of the government, expressed in its dictatorship and authoritarianism, create conditions for development that predetermined the role of the Russian intelligentsia in the future? That is, the purpose of this work is an attempt to answer the question about the role of autocracy in the formation of a special type of intelligentsia, active in student years and passive during the crisis of power, unable to do anything and somehow turn the situation around.

Conclusion (excerpt)

The role of post-reform universities in public political life determined by deep objective prerequisites. Not only university problems proper lay at the basis of the university crisis, which became especially aggravated by the beginning of the 20th century. The unresolved contradictions of a society in which the development of capitalism was held back by feudal remnants, the absence of political freedoms at that time created a tense political climate in Russia in the last quarter of the 19th century. Even during the reforms of the 1960s, the government cut off any legal path to freedom, because it responded with repressions even to simple petitions, because it never even allowed to speak freely about freedom.

Literature

SOURCES

1. Kovalevsky M.M. Moscow University in the late 70s and early 80s of the last century. Personal memories / Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

2. Lebedev V.A. Educational memories. / Russian antiquity 1908. No. 7 - 10

3. The General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities in 1863 / w*w.lib.r* - Library of Maxim Mashkov.

4. Pisarev D.I. Works in 4 volumes. M., 1955 - 1956. T2

5. Full Code of Laws of the Russian Empire /under. ed. A.A. Dobrovolsky. SPb 1911., book 2

6. Sechenov I.M. At Moscow University (1850 - 1856) / Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

7. Sorokin V. Memoirs of an old student / Russian antiquity 1888 No. 12

LITERATURE

1. Andreev A.Yu. Lectures on the history of Moscow University. 1755-1855. M., 2001

2. Borodzin I.N. Universities in the era of the 60s - In the book History Russia XIX in. SPb. 1908 - 1909. T4

3. Great reforms in Russia 1856 - 1874 / ed. L.G. Zakharova et al. M., 1992

4. Georgievsky A.I. Brief essay government measures and plans against student unrest. SPb. 1890

5. Janilyaev G.A. University autonomy / From the era of great reforms. 1893. 10th ed. SPb., 1907

6. Elenev F.P. Student riots. SPb.1888.

7. Ikonnikov V.S. Russian universities in connection with the course of public education / Bulletin of Europe, 1876. No. 9 - 10

8. Klyuchevsky V.O. Course of Russian history / Electronic book. IDDK.2005

9. Leikina-Svirskaya V. R. Intelligentsia in Russia in 1901-1917. M., 1981

10. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1971

11. Litvak B.G. Coup of 1861 in Russia: why the reformist alternative was not implemented. M., 1991

12. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

13. Pokrovsky M.N. Russian history since ancient times. M., 1934

14. The revolutionary situation in Russia in the middle. XIX century / Ed. M.V. Nechkina M., 1978

15. Rozhdestvensky SV Historical review of the activities of the Ministry of Education. 1802-1902. SPb. 1902

16. Firsov N.A. Student stories at Kazan University 1855 - 1863 / Russian antiquity 1889. No. 3,4, 6 - 8

17. Shchetinina GI Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. M., 1987

18. Shchetinina G. I. Universities in Russia and the charter of 1884, M., 1976

19. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the path of reform: the sixties of the XIX century. M., 1993

20. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two eras. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985

The first conflict arose because of police brutality against students of St. Petersburg University. The students demanded inviolability of the person, the publication of all measures concerning them, the repeal of the old law on conscription of expelled students into the army. The rector of the university answered them that "birds of paradise, which are given everything they ask, do not live in our climate" Solomonov V.A. On the participation of Moscow students in the first All-Russian student strike in 1899 //Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8: History. 1994. No. 2. Students staged a demonstration near the Kazan Cathedral. They were supported by their strike of 25,000 workers. The university was closed, all students were expelled. After the opening of the university, 2181 students out of 2425 were accepted back.

Nicholas II denounced the students, saying that they should study, not demonstrate. The fermentation did not subside and on January 14, 1901, former student Karpovich P.V. assassinated the Minister of Education Prof. Bogolepova N.P. This senseless crime, enthusiastically received by the students, opened a series of terrorist acts by the revolutionary forces and the government's response. After these events, a significant part of the students became in opposition to the tsarist regime. In 1902, an underground student congress took place with fierce discussions of the Social Revolutionaries and liberals Engel G., Gorokhov V. From the history of the student movement. 1899-1906. M., 1908. A small part of extremist students went into terror, into the militant organization of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. After 5 years, in the university cities of the Jewish Pale of Settlement - Kyiv, Odessa, Nizhyn, Jewish students became the main explosive force. In the revolutionary turmoil of these cities, especially after the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, they took an active part, being, as the rightists claimed, its "backbone". Great ideas, including socialist ones, spread in a transnational way, like religious, pacifist, feminist and other movements.

At the beginning of the 20th century, students became the main class, which was dissatisfied with the situation in the country. Of course, the marginal strata of society experienced the greatest oppression, but it was the students who were the accumulator of social unrest, it was among its most intellectual part that Marxist sentiments, thoughts about the coming revolution, a total change in society, went. I think that anyone will agree that the workers were hardly familiar with the philosophical and political views of both domestic and Western thinkers. And only among students and intellectuals they had huge popularity.

Material and living conditions of student life in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Student life of that time deserves special attention.

Student and work is not a new topic for Russia. She was prominent in fiction of the past: half-poor, half-starved, always looking for a place as a tutor or tutor, living from water to bread - this is how a typical student of the second half of the 19th century appears before us, Ivanov P. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). Moscow, 1903 R-th province, "he was so poorly dressed that another, even a familiar person, would be ashamed to go out into the street in such rags during the day" Raskolnikov's student life was provided by money transfers from his mother (his mother allocated him 15 rubles from her pension of 120 rubles, and even irregularly) and lessons. Such is his friend, student Razumikhin, who earns money for teaching by lessons or translations from foreign languages. As long as there were lessons, Raskolnikov "somehow, but made his way", avoiding turning to moneylenders, although pawnshops and usury offices, where you could pawn and re-pawn some personal items, up to your own clothes, served as a help to students in difficult minutes. However, by the time the crime was committed, Raskolnikov had already left the university for several months, "for lack of something to support himself, and his lessons and other means ceased," despite the fact that he studied diligently and surpassed many of his classmates in knowledge (for a while, Razumikhin also left teaching the same reason). The murder of the usurer Alena Ivanovna Raskolnikov is largely driven by the lack of means of subsistence. It could be assumed that such a deplorable financial situation of a student, described by Dostoevsky, is a marginal and extreme phenomenon. However, turning to the tetralogy of N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, which Gorky called "the whole epic of Russian life", we find in the third and fourth parts ("Students" and "Engineers") almost the same picture. For most students, in addition to parental money, the main sources of livelihood were tutoring, tutoring, private lessons, translations, work as a copyist. Most of these activities had nothing to do with the professions that students studied at the institutes.

It means that this work helped young people to master future profession, no need to say. Rather, students used for survival the cultural resources they inherited from their families or acquired while studying at the gymnasiums. The limited nature of the student labor market was partly determined negative attitude to physical labor. Students of that era - most often come from a noble environment, which, despite the often encountered financial insolvency, retained class prejudices: these young people could hardly imagine themselves doing hard physical work like loading and unloading.

In the fundamental work of A.E. Ivanov, the "art of survival" of pre-revolutionary Russian students is considered in detail and comprehensively. After analyzing a huge number of statistical and historical documents, the author comes to the conclusion that in addition to parental assistance and state loans and subsidies, welfare societies and cooperative student organizations, students' own earnings constituted a significant part of their budget revenues.

"A significant proportion of students worked (permanently, temporarily, occasionally), and not only during the educational process, but also during the summer vacation." At the same time, already at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. "an ominous companion of student everyday life" was unemployment Frommet B. R. Key moments in the history of Russian students // Student Bulletin. 1917. No. 7. February 17..

Most often, poor students could not get a profitable place. An almost insoluble task for them was to find such an income that would not take a lot of time and provide living wage. "Our comrades are strenuously knocking on the thresholds of the editorial offices of newspapers, all kinds of bureaus and offices in pursuit of earnings, but usually they do not find work here," a student of the University of St. Vladimir in Kyiv wrote in 1903 to the editorial office of the Kiev News newspaper. It was difficult for needy students to get around their "more affluent colleagues with good acquaintances," and therefore appropriate recommendations, who lived in the best urban areas of the city, decently dressed. In Moscow, according to P. Ivanov, employers avoided dealing with those who lived in the "student camp" (Bronny or "Zhivoderka", Georgians). The inhabitants of the dormitory for poor students - the notorious "Lyapinka" and the cereal "Girsha", as well as tenement houses on Bronnaya, which were the realm of hostesses-renters who lived at the expense of tenants - mostly students, were especially hostile. As a rule, the latter hid the place of residence that compromised them. The topic of secondary employment of students practically disappears in the post-revolutionary, Soviet period. Numerous works are devoted to the problems of youth health and communist education, the value orientations of Soviet students and the problems of their socialization are studied. The complete absence of research into the material and everyday existence of students leads to the idea that politics Soviet power in the region of higher education solved all these problems. This theme is not reflected in the literature of that period. In this regard, the story of Yuri Trifonov is symptomatic, which describes the life and studies of students of the Literary Institute in the very first post-war years. Most of the characters in the novel are former veterans. They are passionate about studies, social, Komsomol activities, work in a student scientific society, establish ties with the working class, expose hostile, ideologically alien elements among students and teachers, experience love affairs. money. Material differentiation among students and, accordingly, the problems associated with it are indicated only by hints. At the same time, as a rule, "negative" heroes are clearly better off than "positive" ones. So, the negative hero Sergei - a talented egoist - walks, "putting his hands into the deep pockets of his spacious furry coat", and Lagutenko, a front-line soldier, wears a "shabby overcoat" ... It is clear that enjoying the first years of peacetime, post-war asceticism took the problems of material prosperity far beyond framework of truly important and interesting aspects of peaceful life. However, the memories of former students of different Soviet generations reveal a more diverse reality to us. To earn a living in addition to the scholarship had to almost everyone who did not belong to the wealthy strata, who came to the university centers from the provinces. Material deprivation, self-restraint, often the same as those of their predecessors from pre-revolutionary times, starving life was their everyday life. The problems of housing and clothing were no less acute than before. Of course, the market for applying student labor has gradually expanded. This happened not only in connection with the growth of production and the development of scientific and technological progress. It should also be taken into account that the new social strata, drawn into the sphere of higher education, no longer shunned unskilled, physical labor. Thus, the loading and unloading of wagons becomes one of the most common types of earnings among young students of the post-war years. Usually they worked at night, unloading wagons with coal and building materials, and in the summer also with vegetables and fruits. Former students recall how, with the money they earned, they "took girls to cocktail bars to make up for lost time due to the war." Girls - this historically relatively new category for higher education - worked much less frequently. Their budget consisted of scholarships and parental money.

With the beginning of the campaign for the development of virgin lands, new forms of earnings appeared in the famous student construction teams. During the summer holidays, students also participated in the harvest in the south, in geological or archaeological expeditions. More exotic are the types of episodic earnings mentioned in the stories of former students, such as donating blood, playing preference for money with wealthy clients (this was especially common in universities of a mathematical profile), participating as test subjects in various medical and psychological experiments. Those who owned musical instruments played in jazz ensembles; many worked as night watchmen, orderlies, stokers Elfimova N. V. Social assistance to students in pre-revolutionary Russia // Russian Journal of Social Work. 1995. No. 2. P. 36-38.. In an era of total shortage, students, especially language universities, did not shun speculation ... Qualified work that coincides with the specialty being studied was more accessible to students of prestigious, metropolitan, in particular, humanitarian, language universities faculties of Moscow State University. They made money by translating, journalism, near-literary forms of activity (reporting for the press or radio, covering student life, etc.).

The prevalence of employment among students depended on the profile and status of the university. So, in MVTU them. Bauman students rarely worked.

Student holidays are a special tradition. The traditions of Russian student revelry had already developed at the beginning of the 19th century. Unlike other "feasts", they were distinguished by love of freedom, some kind of special patriotism and all-consuming brotherhood. There is no specific ritual for the celebration. Every year something new. Generations are changing, and with them comes a new understanding of student holidays.

Perhaps the most famous and oldest holiday is Tatyana's Day (celebrated on January 25, on the day when the winter session is finally "closed"). In the descriptions of the celebration of Tatyana's Day, it is usually most of all about how much was drunk, and how someone played tricks. All this is accompanied by mass festivities. Not a single frost will force a student to stay at home on this significant day.

A.P. Chekhov, in one of his early feuilletons of 1885, wrote about the Moscow student holiday: “Everything was drunk this year, except for the Moskva River, and this was due to the fact that it froze ... It was so fun that one studious from an excess of feelings was bathed in a reservoir where the sterlets swim…"

Closed in 1918 university church, a reading room was set up in it. Holidays "in honor of the academic goddess" Tatyana have stopped. In 1923, "Archaic and meaningless Tatyana" was noticed in the directive order by the Day of the proletarian students. However, it was not possible to completely eradicate the memory of the old student holiday. In the post-war years, Moscow students resumed, of course, in home companies, the celebration of Tatiana's Day. In the 1990s, along with the return of some customs canceled by the revolution, Tatyana's day returned. At Moscow University, they began to celebrate it officially, and the rector congratulated the students with a glass of champagne in his hand. In 1993, the building where the university church was located was handed over to the Patriarchate, and everything fell into place again. More recently, a new tradition has emerged: protests - as many newspapers note, in our time this event can be equated with a student holiday.

Although the first universities appeared in Russia in the 18th century, students as a special social group took shape only in the second half of the 19th century. As we know, raznochintsy students were almost entirely democratic. Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky became their idols, their ideology was populism. Then it was fashionable to read "What to do?" and be a materialist. Perhaps the first protest was organized by students of St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kyiv in March 1861, a memorial service for the Poles demonstrators killed by the tsarist troops in Warsaw. "In the winter of 1899, the first all-Russian student strike took place, which then began to be held regularly."

Meanwhile, one of the factors influencing the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of Russian students was the theater. Theater in Russia, especially in Russia at the end of the 19th century, especially the capital's theater played a huge cultural, educational and socio-political role. The connection of Moscow University with the theatrical life of Moscow had a long and solid foundation. Suffice it to recall that the very emergence of the Moscow public theater was due precisely to the university, or rather, the university student theater, one of the founders of which was the famous Russian writer, an outstanding university figure M.M. Kheraskov. Over the years, this connection, consecrated by traditions, only became more multifaceted and stronger. Moscow University, on the one hand, and Moscow theaters, on the other, are firmly woven into the cultural fabric of the capital, turning over time into public, cultural and educational centers, by the very nature of their activities and traditionally closely related to each other.

The influence of the theatrical life of Moscow on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of students of Moscow University. The problem itself breaks down into a number of sub-problems. Because in the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. theaters played both a cultural and educational and a socio-political role in the life of Russian society; accordingly, their influence on the public was both cultural and educational and socio-political in nature. If we talk about Moscow students, then, along with all of the above, a huge role was played by the charitable activities of theaters, as well as personal contacts of theater figures with students of Moscow University. The influence of the theater on the students of Moscow University, of course, was not one-sided. Students constituted one of the most numerous, and, most importantly, the most active part of the theater audience. Accordingly, the repertoire of theaters, and the manner of performance, and the very nature of relations with society were largely determined precisely by the needs of students. The question of the personal ties of a number of theatrical figures with Moscow University deserves special consideration. It is known that many outstanding actors, singers, composers, directors either received a university education or took an active part in the public life of Moscow University (in charity events, in scientific, educational and cultural societies at the university, etc.).

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Theatrical life in Moscow had a huge impact on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of the students of Moscow University. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. this influence can be fully and above all called a revolutionary factor in the spiritual history of Russian students. Both the repertoire of Moscow theatres, and their socio-political, and even cultural and educational activities (attempts to appeal to the masses, met with a decisive rebuff from the autocracy) contributed to the growth of opposition sentiments among the students.

2. Students, being, firstly, the largest and most active part of the theatrical public, and, secondly, a force very influential in wide circles of the Russian intelligentsia, in turn most directly influenced the repertoire policy of Moscow theaters and the nature of public behavior of theatrical figures.

3. Relations of Moscow University with the capital's theaters were not limited

formal and informal relationships in the field of cultural, educational and socio-political activities. For many theatrical figures, Moscow University was in the full sense of the alma mater, and, at the same time, for many students of Moscow University, the theater became a place for further application of their talent, vitality and energy.

As for the relationship of students with professors, this can be learned from the example of the Kazan Telegraph, 1900 Ivanov P. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). M., 1903..

“The number of students at Kazan University by January 1, 1900 was 823 students and 75 regular students. According to the faculties, they were distributed as follows: in the historical and philological - 37 people, in the physical and mathematical sciences - 179 (in the category of mathematical sciences - 60 and in the category of natural sciences - 19), in the legal - 164, and in the medical - 443 people.

During 1899, 169 students enjoyed the right to listen to lectures free of charge, which is 15.5% of the total number of students.

Holiday dinner

On November 5, 1900, on the day of the founding of the Imperial Kazan University, its former students gathered in St. Petersburg for a friendly dinner at Donon's restaurant. About 20 persons participated in the dinner. Among those present at the dinner were: Senator N.P. Smirnov, the oldest student (class of 1846) V.V. Pashutin, N.A. Kremlev - former rector of Kazan University, prof. V.A. Lebedev, S.K. Bulich, S.F. Glinka, A.F. Elachich and others. A telegram was sent to the rector of Kazan University: "Former students of Kazan University, having gathered at a friendly dinner at the turn of two centuries, drink for the further prosperity of their native university and express confidence that in the twentieth century, his pupils will continue to add their names to the ranks of the luminaries of science and honest figures in all fields of public life of the dear Fatherland.

Professors, closer to students!

In order to establish a possible rapprochement between the professorship and the students and a more correct formulation of university teaching, attention is paid to strengthening practical classes in all faculties and the formation of student, scientific and literary circles is allowed; but the most expedient measure for establishing the desired communication between professors and students is the arrangement of properly arranged student dormitories, for which, by the Highest command, 3,262,000 rubles were allocated from the amount of the State Treasury.

Fashion (democratic and aristocratic) played its essential role in the public presentation of the students.

A special place in the everyday culture of the students belonged to the so-called "sexual question". With all its mysteries and dangers, it was vigorously discussed in Russian society, especially after the first Russian revolution. The sphere of the subculture of the young intelligentsia also included its attitude to marriage (church and civil), family life and childbearing.

INTRODUCTION

higher education student body

In modern conditions, when higher education in Russia is experiencing serious difficulties in adapting to the new conditions of the socio-economic development of the state, an urgent requirement is the historical analysis and generalization of a wide range of problems related to its spiritual, scientific and cultural potential.

The successful solution of this difficult task depends on many factors, the main of which is the careful attitude to the historical past of universities, the preservation and understanding of the intellectual, scientific and cultural traditions they have accumulated. In this regard, the study of the history of pre-revolutionary students, which was rightfully considered a true "barometer" of the cultural and social life of Russian universities, is noticeably updated. This paper presents the whole range of problems related to the life and work of student youth at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

The history of Russian students is quite well covered in the literature and has a fairly representative historiography. The most complete and detailed history of Russian students in the 19th and 20th centuries is presented in the monographs of A.E. Ivanova.

This book is the first in national historiography monographic study, specially dedicated to the students of the Russian empire XIX- beginning of XX century. as a socio-demographic community, according to its professional prospects which was part of the intelligentsia, although not fully identical to it.

The monographs present those aspects of the life of the students, which ultimately determined its social Psychology(group consciousness), subculture, socio-political behavior, namely: the motivation for choosing a profession by graduates of different types of secondary educational institutions (male and female) in the context of the mentality of the environment from which they emerged; normative principles, technology", class-religious-protective regulators of the admission of applicants to higher education (public and public-private); social and national structuring of the composition of the student body; its legal status; material and living situation (budget, food, housing conditions, clothing, state of health, age); Russian student abroad (geography, statistics, legal and financial situation).

The torment of an applicant in the work of A.E. Ivanov are also covered in great detail. True, in the idyllic times of the empire, as it turns out, universities were given to some people for free - graduates of "classical" gymnasiums. And the point here is not the high level of education provided by the gymnasiums, but the desire of the state to somehow delay the process of the inevitable democratization of society and preserve, against all odds, the estates of the administrative apparatus. The university opened access to public service, and the children of the nobility studied in the gymnasiums. There was no need to put obstacles in the way of "ours" - otherwise, God forbid, "strangers" would come in their place. The book is full of numbers. The monograph examines in detail the categories of potential applicants and their possibilities (and along with the "classics" and "realists" there are seminarians and pupils of teachers' institutes that usually escape from the field of view), the features of the "women's issue". All this includes not only the technique of admission, but also the motivation for continuing education and choosing one or another educational institution; number; social, age and national structure of students; living conditions (starting from the budget and ending with the state of health) - finally, exotic (everything is the same, but with respect to Russian students who have gone abroad, including the cost of a room with a stove in some Swiss university city). It can be said that the absence of the most important thing is striking - the learning process, attitudes towards studies, politics, intellectual fashion, and so on.

Monograph Tkachenko N.S. is devoted to the study of the question of the participation of Moscow students in the socio-political life of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. The students of the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy and the Technical School took a significant part in this movement. But the leading role in the social and political life of Moscow students was played by Moscow University, therefore, in this work, the main attention is paid to it. The work highlights the participation of students of Moscow University in the socio-political life of Russia in 1861-1900. The Raznochinsk stage of the liberation movement ends in 1895. The author of this work brings his research to 1900, when the powerful movement of students of Moscow University began to develop into a general student strike of 1902.

A review of the activities of the department of the Ministry of Public Education during the reign of Emperor Alexander III, published in 1901, gives a complete picture of the state of higher education in the period under review and contains statistical information about universities and other educational institutions at the end of the 19th century.

The chronological scope of the study is limited to the period 1881-1990.

The methodological basis of the study is the principles of historicism and objectivity, which make it possible to recreate a reliable picture of the era and show all facets of the life of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.

Object of study: Russian students at the end of the 19th century.

The subject is socio-cultural processes among the students of this period.

The purpose of the work Russian students in the second half of the nineteenth century

In accordance with the set goal, the following tasks were set and solved in the work:

-to recreate a historically reliable and diverse scientific chronicle of Russian students: its social nature, level and principles of material, domestic and legal life support,

-describe the norms and traditions of the spiritual and cultural life of students;

-reveal the role of students in the social and political life of Russia at the end of the 19th century.

The structure of the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA AT THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY

1.1 Features of university education

In 1881, there were 8 universities in the Russian Empire: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Kazan, St. Vladimir in Kyiv, Novorossiysk (in Odessa), Warsaw, Yuryevsky (Yuryev).

The number of people who graduated from universities and received scientific and medical degrees was constantly growing, from 1954 people in 1881 to 3892 people in 1894. the largest part of the students was studying the legal sciences, followed by the medical faculties, physics and mathematics, historical and philological and theological faculties.

The distribution of students by class can be judged from the following table.

Table 1

By estatesChildren of nobles and officials. Religious titles Other estates. Foreigners Total number of students 1881. 46061844324416598591894

In the life of Russian universities for 1881-1894, the main events were: the introduction of a new general charter in 1884 to replace the former in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Kazan, St. Vladimir in Kyiv, Novorossiysk and Odessa universities and the opening in 1888 of a new university in Tomsk.

The introduction of the new charter is a major event in the life and work of universities, because it completely changed the conditions for their existence. Under Article 73 of the new statute, the student was given the right to choose a teacher himself if the subject was read by several teachers. In addition to the fee in favor of the university, in accordance with Art. 129 of the charter, a special fee (the so-called fee) is established for listening to lectures and participating in practical classes in favor of the teacher whose lectures the student attends. A prototype of education standards was introduced, which were approved by the Minister public education Thus, each student entering a particular university faculty must know in advance what knowledge and skills he must acquire in order to receive a university diploma. The division of students into courses and transfer exams from course to course were abolished, but it was established that only those students who had completed the number of six months prescribed for completing the course (10 in the medical and 8 in other faculties) were allowed to take the final exams. Thus, it was assumed that students would study their chosen sciences and with their chosen teachers under the vigilant supervision and guidance of the latter, the result of the classes would be a credit for each half year by the faculty. A student who has not been credited for 3 semesters in a row or 5 semesters in general is dismissed from the university. Classes of students of scholarships under Art. 128 are under special control, and the scholarships and allowances themselves are awarded under Art. 82 for special competitive tests. The chairpersons of the examination committees are appointed by the minister, either from outsiders or from professors of other universities, and the members of the commission from professors of the same university. Students' misdemeanors are tried by a special university court, consisting of three judges, annually elected from university professors.

The charter of 1884 pays special attention to the scientific and practical studies of students, giving these studies, if not more, then equal importance with lectures. According to Article 25, teaching at the university is divided into academic semesters, and these semesters are defined from August 20 to December 20 and from January 15 to May 30.

The Charter of 1884 establishes various types of scholarships and allowances, issued until the award of scholarships at the beginning of the student's university studies, subject to impeccable behavior and success in studies.

The introduction of the charter was followed by orders for the gradual introduction uniform for students on the publication of faculty reviews of the teaching of sciences by semesters, on semester credits and examination requirements in test committees.

1.2 Students as a socio-demographic group in Russia in the 19th century

In 2015 our country will celebrate the 260th anniversary of the founding of Moscow University. It is generally recognized and does not require additional argumentation that, historically, Moscow University has been both a scientific, cultural and educational, and socio-political center not only of Moscow itself, but of all of Russia. The whole of Russian society ... listened to what Moscow University was doing and saying, the oldest both in time of its existence, and in its experience and maturity (Proclamation of the Kiev Union Council of United Communities and Organizations. March 1899 / TsGIAM. F. 418. Op. 514. D. 89. L. 17). Meanwhile, the face of the university was determined not only by its teachers, but also by students. And, consequently, in many ways they determined the face of the entire Russian society as a whole. In any case, society itself readily recognized this phenomenon. Yes, in historical note Moscow professors we read: A student in Russia is not a student, but a teacher of society.” Thus, the problem of the formation of the spiritual and psychological atmosphere of the pre-revolutionary era is in many respects the problem of the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of Russian students.

Students were a new social group in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. We must pay tribute to the tsarist government, which supported the desire to study at the universities of young people from the poor. Of the 4,017 students at metropolitan universities, 1,957 were the children of poor parents, with 847 of them receiving scholarships.

In these faculties, essentially new to the tradition of Russian higher education, a special spiritual environment was born and grew stronger, which no dictate was able to control and suppress. The very property of philosophical and social thought, the logic of its development inevitably leads to problems and solutions, the content of which remained indifferent to the husk of their verbal shell. Ideology is ideology, and philosophy was looking for its inner meaning and found it. However, with all social cultural innovations, some special law of inconsistency between intention and result is associated. Being created and established for the sake of a specific goal, they very quickly begin to live according to their own law, entering into complex collisions with the force that gave birth to them. This is what happened to Russian universities. Soon after the establishment of the Moscow University, its professors began to cause unfortunate concerns to the supreme power with the inappropriate direction of their thoughts and the desire to judge things that, according to the latter, should not have been included in the circle of permitted scientific subjects. In the 19th century, with all our well-known domestic groveling, universities became a constant source of growing government anxiety, sowers of confusion and dissent. Could Peter the Great have foreseen that by issuing a decree on the establishment of an academic university, he thereby laid the foundation for an institution in which freethinking and state sedition would find refuge, and students, together with professors, would, in addition to being charged with their social and cultural function, also spokesman for public protest.

Likewise, perhaps in an even more complex and incomprehensible form for those ignorant of the intricacies of ideological processes, things developed with the philosophical faculties. In the epoch of Nicholas, tired of fighting harmful deviations (from the officially established and state-consensual principles) seen in the lectures and books of the professors of philosophical faculties, the government decided to close them, and to entrust the reading of the necessary philosophical courses at universities only to persons of the clergy. If we take into account that the philosophical sciences did not flourish at all in the theological academies of Russia at that time, and the academies themselves were far from being lights of knowledge, then the bad consequences of such a decision are not at all difficult to imagine.

It was during the period under review that a faculty system of teaching was formed in Russia, in which students are divided into several streams progressively specializing in their training. No less important is the transition to the annual graduation of students from the university that took place at the same time. The faculty system of education and the transition to the regular graduation of students had a decisive influence on the formation of "scientific" professions. Established by the mid-1830s - early 1840s. the system turned out to be quite conservative and lasted with minor changes until the post-revolutionary transformations until the 20th century. The socio-psychological portrayal of students also includes the study (as far as sources allow) of their spiritual mood: depressions, suicidal impulses, outbursts of collective indignation, mass enthusiasm. The spiritual and spiritual world of the Russian students was expressed in relation to the "personal God" (faith and unbelief), to women's and national equality (in the academic and in the general civil sense). In these aspects of the worldview, the universal human and civil structure of the inner world of the young Russian intelligentsia of the late 19th and early 20th centuries is especially clearly manifested.

CHAPTER 2. RUSSIAN STUDENTS: LIFE WORLD

2.1 Social status of students

In social terms, higher education plays the role of an "elevator" - in late XIX century in Russia, this elevator, thank God, has already appeared, it works to this day, and there is no need to turn a blind eye to its rude true nature. A.E. Ivanov calls the students of the turn of the century a marginal group - but marginality in itself is a way out of the former state that did not satisfy you. Aspiring to become a student aspires to a better life- let not for the sake of future earnings, even for the sake of belonging to the "subculture".

As for the motivation and the problem of access to the elevator, we can say that the "classics" were not sweet either - those who wanted to enter technical, commercial or agricultural universities (and this was the first era of engineers!) took them with a fight. The “realists”, however, who wanted to enter the university, had to not only take entrance exams, but report for the entire course of the gymnasium, that is, primarily for the unknown Latin and Greek. Why, in turn, the medical faculties of universities suffered - the work of a doctor for a graduate of a gymnasium was often too dirty. The smallest number of students was in the historical and philological faculties - at the thought of continuing the study of Greek, a grimace of disgust ran through the faces of the gymnasium students. All this wealth of choice, however, existed only for those who managed to enter and graduate from secondary schools. Genuine outcasts, to which, unfortunately, we no longer belong, always leave the race earlier.

During this period, for the first time, student communes (Vulfovka, Smargon Academy, Leshtukovka) and circles of Tchaikovsky, Ishutin, Natanson spread massively. A certain subculture of youth is being formed with its own style of behavior, manner of dressing, the value system of which does not accept the traditional attitudes of the Russian Empire. The representative of "underground Russia" is most often a junior student of natural faculties, a raznochinets, a native of the provinces, a poor, necessarily an atheist, independently studies Western rationalist philosophy and modern natural science, in connection with which he will soon abandon his studies at the university and devote his life to the people, perhaps he will be arrested and sent into exile. Our task is to consider a number of socio-cultural factors that gave rise to this type.

The needs of post-reform Russia in highly qualified specialists led to reforms in the field of education, which manifested itself in an increase in the number of higher, secondary, primary educational institutions, in an increased number of raznochintsy students. Gradually, the everyday, psychological, mental traits of a commoner became typical of the students of the post-reform era. The increase in the number of raznochintsy could not but affect the appearance of student youth. Being a social stratum that had lost its roots (traditional occupation, place of residence), raznochinstvo was an example of "cultural outcasts" devoid of any traditions and found themselves in unnatural living conditions. Indicative in this regard is the analysis of the formation of the worldview of the raznochintsy, conducted by V.V. Vorovsky, who examined Bazarov, the hero of the novel by I.S. Turgenev - as a typical representative of this era. Comparing the worldview of the nihilist with the worldview of the "fathers" - the Kirsanovs, the publicist comes to the conclusion that the "fathers" were the offspring of the "protective" traditions of education, with which they were given a legacy that comes from the depths of centuries, "the Bazarovs were the offspring of the last decades." Bazarov, as a typical commoner who left his environment in pursuit of knowledge, has "no tradition transmitted through education, they had no education at all. Therefore, they became utilitarians and rationalists. Thought began to seem like a resolving force." Here we also mention Pisarev's formulation in relation to these people - "mental proletariat" - that is, a group of people who have nothing but their knowledge and, therefore, easily accept ideas about the need for a socialist reorganization of the world. Let us quote S.M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky: "Russian universities and gymnasiums - the centers of the most stormy and passionate political life in the early seventies were strongly influenced by the revolutionary movement, for the students mostly belonged to the families of small-scale nobles and the lower clergy, and both are poor."

Let's take into account the fact that a significant part of the students of the capital's universities came from the provinces, who had neither acquaintances nor friends in Moscow or St. Petersburg. VR Leykina-Svirskaya in her work "Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the nineteenth century" cites the following data: in 1877 - 1878, out of 1418 students of St. Petersburg University, only 427 people were educated in the St. Petersburg educational district. In Moscow, out of 1,568 students, only 925 studied in Moscow secondary schools. This is one of the factors that gave rise to student communities, where revolutionary ideas, for example, fraternities, quickly found recognition. Particular attention should be paid to self-education circles, many of which compensated for the lack of family communication, so Natanson's circle set as its goal "moral help" to visiting students and involving them in their community in order not to let them "die and die out due to loneliness." Most often, the circles had their own library, where the whole range of literature was presented, the knowledge of which is necessary for a young man who decided to sacrifice his life to the people. From the first year, students got into these communities, quickly assimilating the norms of the subculture. Fiction served as a kind of code in the studied communities, because more than one generation of revolutionaries began their political activity, first of all with acquaintance with it. A fairly certain circle of reading formed the aesthetic tastes and needs of the younger generation, their value world. Here is an excerpt from a letter sent to Mikhailovsky on the occasion of his anniversary: Not reflections on the injustice of the regime, but literary impressions often acted as the initial stimuli for the struggle.

Thus, it can be said that the reforms of the sixties led to fundamental changes in the social structure of society, the emergence of diversity, the availability of higher education even to representatives of taxable estates gave rise to the type of "cultural marginal", whose consciousness turned out to be most responsive to the ideas of socialism and revolution.

In the socio-demographic group of Russian students, it is necessary to single out such a group as students who have gone to study abroad.

Fyodor Stepun in his book of memoirs "Former and Unfulfilled" wrote about three groups of Russian students. Firstly, it was Jewish youth, still deprived of the right to receive higher education in Russia, but already had the right to leave Russia to study abroad. The second group included young people who, for other reasons, did not have the right to enter universities in Russia: for this then it was imperative to finish the gymnasium, and realists or graduates of all kinds of schools required additional exams. In the then Germany, this was easier. As students breaking out of a more stagnant into a more liberal environment, the students of both groups not only shared the ideas of Russia's social reorganization, but began to develop these mainly socialist ideas in Europe.

Ideas that were subsequently transferred to Russia and found fertile soil in it. Stepun wrote about it this way: “It is not easy for people of my generation to establish a fair attitude towards Russia on the eve of the revolution. We can only say with certainty that the time between the revolution of 1905 and the war of 1914 year will enter into the history, on the one hand, of the sometimes genuine flourishing and deepening of Russian culture, and on the other, of the sometimes obviously unhealthy, full of poisonous temptations, refinement of Russian intellectual spirituality. It was not easy for a young man at that time to internally cope with the wealth of ideas advancing on him. The Russian socialist parties carried on regular revolutionary work abroad. The center of the Russian party students was the Heidelberg reading room.

Special mention should be made of this reading room. It was founded by Russian students in the middle of the 19th century, in 1861, later it was called "Pirogovskaya". Not only all the publications of the then Russian abroad were collected here, but also the funds for which Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov gathered in Italy and performed the operation on Giuseppe Garibaldi. The leaders of the reading room were the Bakst brothers, one of whom, Vladimir, was introduced by Turgenev in Smoke. The inhabitants of the "Pirogov reading room" did not favor the author of "Fathers and Sons". Their hero was Herzen. If the Russian student Heidelberg could seem like a real kitchen of pernicious socialism by the First World War, it is precisely because for several decades this place was a refuge for active youth pushed out of Russia. The historian and politician Sergei Grigoryevich Svatikov wrote about this era. But let's listen to what Fyodor Stepun writes about the third group of Russian students in Heidelberg at the beginning of the century.

“The revolutionary nature of the era, of course, also had its downside: a certain worthlessness of the rank and file representatives of the conservative camp. I remember that in the course of one or two semesters, only occasionally entering the University, a warm company of noble and dignitary youth noisily rejoiced in Heidelberg. Of course, this company did not communicate with the reading room, but even with us, academic intellectuals, they approached with caution and analysis.

Here Stepun stumbles on Germanism: academicians in Germany are not a title, but only a designation of involvement in the learned class. But let's listen to what Stepun says about the nobility and dignitary youth, or the third group of Russian students relatively loyal to the Russian state.

“This company, of course, was not involved in politics. She did not show intellectual interest in illegal Russia and underground literature, as if revolutionary axes were honed against her in the reading room. She had fun not only noisily, but also with a twist, with those whims that could never have occurred to corporate students. The idea of carrying a half-naked, dead drunk comrade out into the street at two in the morning and moving in a funeral procession to the station with a bucket of cold water to resurrect the dead man was a monstrous excess of student jokes traditional in Germany. Accustomed to cat concerts under the windows of sleeping burghers, to extinguishing lanterns or climbing monuments, the cozy Heidelberg Schutzmanns decided at first that this was not fun, but real murder.

It must be admitted that it was not at all the policemen and not only the conservative burghers who reacted with hostility to conspicuous and noisy foreigners. Before the outbreak of the First World War, students from Russia at various universities in Germany made up from a third to a half of all foreign students in general. Unlike Russian emigre students and semi-emigres, the German students of the beginning of the century were conservative. Most were united in corporations, i.e. men's unions, which had very broad powers within the framework of university autonomy. German student corporations demanded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to put barriers for students from Russia. In the northeast of Germany, in Prussia, students from Russia were subjected to more discrimination than in the south, for example, in Heidelberg. In some universities, foreign students were not allowed to take the front rows in the classrooms: those were reserved for the Germans. "Slavs", "Russians" or "Czechs", as students from the east were collectively called, were accused of "non-student, impolite behavior". Since the majority in the Russian colonies were Jewish student youth, the anti-Semitic element in the xenophobia of German students before the First World War had room to develop. In the memoirs of Georg Grosser, a Russian German who went to study in Germany, excerpts from the complaints of corporants against their comrades from Russia are given:

We can't stand the Russians, they bring down the university with its aristocratic tradition from a high pedestal and seek to bring it closer to the dirty representatives of the working-class districts. They walk dirty, like workers returning from factories, and they are friends with the latter, as if they were laborers themselves, and not students ... (“they are almost all ... socialists, and therefore our enemies”)

This is how the Russian German Georg Grosser wrote about the attitude of German student corporations to the influx of students from Russia.

2.2 Students in the social and political life of Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries.

The first conflict arose because of police brutality against students of St. Petersburg University. The students demanded inviolability of the person, the publication of all measures concerning them, the repeal of the old law on conscription of expelled students into the army. The rector of the university told them that "birds of paradise, who are given whatever they ask, do not live in our climate." Students staged a demonstration near the Kazan Cathedral. They were supported by their strike of 25,000 workers. The university was closed, all students were expelled. After the opening of the university, 2181 students out of 2425 were accepted back.

Nicholas II denounced the students, saying that they should study, not demonstrate. The fermentation did not subside and on January 14, 1901, former student Karpovich P.V. assassinated the Minister of Education Prof. Bogolepova N.P. This senseless crime, enthusiastically received by the students, opened a series of terrorist acts by the revolutionary forces and the government's response. After these events, a significant part of the students became in opposition to the tsarist regime. In 1902, an underground student congress took place with fierce discussions between the Socialist-Revolutionaries and liberals. A small part of extremist students went into terror, into the militant organization of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. After 5 years, in the university cities of the Jewish Pale of Settlement - Kyiv, Odessa, Nizhyn, Jewish students became the main explosive force. In the revolutionary turmoil of these cities, especially after the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, they took an active part, being, as the rightists claimed, its "backbone". Great ideas, including socialist ones, spread in a transnational way, like religious, pacifist, feminist and other movements.

2.3 Material and living conditions of students in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Student life of that time deserves special attention.

Student and work is not a new topic for Russia. She occupied a prominent place in the fiction of the past: half-poor, half-starved, always looking for a place as a tutor or tutor, living from water to bread - this is how a typical student of the second half of the 19th century appears before us. A student of St. Petersburg University, Raskolnikov, a non-resident, "from the nobility", who came from a small town in the R-th province, "was so poorly dressed that another, even a familiar person, would be ashamed to go out into the street in such rags during the day" Raskolnikov's student life was provided money transfers from his mother (his mother gave him 15 rubles from her pension of 120 rubles, and even then irregularly) and lessons. Such is his friend, student Razumikhin, who earns money for teaching by lessons or translations from foreign languages. As long as there were lessons, Raskolnikov "somehow, but made his way", avoiding turning to moneylenders, although pawnshops and usury offices, where you could pawn and re-pawn some personal items, up to your own clothes, served as a help to students in difficult minutes. However, by the time the crime was committed, Raskolnikov had already left the university for several months, "for lack of something to support himself, and his lessons and other means ceased," despite the fact that he studied diligently and surpassed many of his classmates in knowledge (for a while, Razumikhin also left teaching the same reason). The murder of the usurer Alena Ivanovna Raskolnikov is largely driven by the lack of means of subsistence. It could be assumed that such a deplorable financial situation of a student, described by Dostoevsky, is a marginal and extreme phenomenon. However, turning to the tetralogy of N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, which Gorky called "the whole epic of Russian life", we find in the third and fourth parts ("Students" and "Engineers") almost the same picture. For most students, in addition to parental money, the main sources of livelihood were tutoring, tutoring, private lessons, translations, work as a copyist. Most of these activities had nothing to do with the professions that students studied at the institutes.

This means that this work helped young people in mastering their future profession, it is not necessary to speak. Rather, students used for survival the cultural resources they inherited from their families or acquired while studying at the gymnasiums. The limited nature of the student labor market was partly determined by the negative attitude towards physical labor. Students of that era - most often come from a noble environment, which, despite the often encountered financial insolvency, retained class prejudices: these young people could hardly imagine themselves doing hard physical work like loading and unloading.

In the fundamental work of A.E. Ivanov, the "art of survival" of pre-revolutionary Russian students is considered in detail and comprehensively. After analyzing a huge number of statistical and historical documents, the author comes to the conclusion that in addition to parental assistance and state loans and subsidies, aid societies and cooperative student organizations, students' own earnings constituted a significant part of their budget revenues.

Most often, poor students could not get a profitable place. An almost insoluble task for them was to find such an income that would not take a lot of time and provide a living wage. "Our comrades are strenuously knocking on the thresholds of the editorial offices of newspapers, all kinds of bureaus and offices in pursuit of earnings, but usually they do not find work here," a student of the University of St. Vladimir in Kyiv wrote in 1903 to the editorial office of the Kiev News newspaper. It was difficult for needy students to get around their "more affluent colleagues with good acquaintances," and therefore appropriate recommendations, who lived in the best urban areas of the city, decently dressed. In Moscow, according to P. Ivanov, employers avoided dealing with those who lived in the "student camp" (Bronny or "Zhivoderka", Georgians). The inhabitants of the dormitory for poor students - the notorious "Lyapinka" and the cereal "Girsha", as well as tenement houses on Bronnaya, which were the realm of hostesses-renters who lived at the expense of tenants - mostly students, were especially hostile. As a rule, the latter hid the place of residence that compromised them. The topic of secondary employment of students practically disappears in the post-revolutionary, Soviet period. Numerous works are devoted to the problems of youth health and communist education, the value orientations of Soviet students and the problems of their socialization are studied. The complete lack of research into the material existence of students leads to the idea that the policy of the Soviet government in the field of higher education solved all these problems. This theme is not reflected in the literature of that period. In this regard, the story of Yuri Trifonov is symptomatic, which describes the life and studies of students of the Literary Institute in the very first post-war years. Most of the characters in the novel are former veterans. They are passionate about studies, social, Komsomol activities, work in a student scientific society, establish ties with the working class, expose hostile, ideologically alien elements among students and teachers, experience love affairs. money. Material differentiation among students and, accordingly, the problems associated with it are indicated only by hints. At the same time, as a rule, "negative" heroes are clearly better off than "positive" ones. So, the negative hero Sergei - a talented egoist - walks, "putting his hands into the deep pockets of his spacious furry coat", and Lagutenko, a front-line soldier, wears a "shabby overcoat" ... It is clear that enjoying the first years of peacetime, post-war asceticism took the problems of material prosperity far beyond framework of truly important and interesting aspects of peaceful life. However, the memories of former students of different Soviet generations reveal a more diverse reality to us. To earn a living in addition to the scholarship had to almost everyone who did not belong to the wealthy strata, who came to the university centers from the provinces. Material deprivation, self-restraint, often the same as those of their predecessors from pre-revolutionary times, starving life was their everyday life. The problems of housing and clothing were no less acute than before. Of course, the market for applying student labor has gradually expanded. This happened not only in connection with the growth of production and the development of scientific and technological progress. It should also be taken into account that the new social strata, drawn into the sphere of higher education, no longer shunned unskilled, physical labor. Thus, the loading and unloading of wagons becomes one of the most common types of earnings among young students of the post-war years. Usually they worked at night, unloading wagons with coal and building materials, and in the summer also with vegetables and fruits. Former students recall how, with the money they earned, they "took girls to cocktail bars to make up for lost time due to the war." Girls - this historically relatively new category for higher education - worked much less frequently. Their budget consisted of scholarships and parental money.

With the beginning of the campaign for the development of virgin lands, new forms of earnings appeared in the famous student construction teams. During the summer holidays, students also participated in the harvest in the south, in geological or archaeological expeditions. More exotic are the types of episodic earnings mentioned in the stories of former students, such as donating blood, playing preference for money with wealthy clients (this was especially common in universities of a mathematical profile), participating as test subjects in various medical and psychological experiments. Those who owned musical instruments played in jazz ensembles; many worked as night watchmen, orderlies, and stokers. In the era of total shortages, students, especially language universities, did not disdain speculation either ... Qualified work, coinciding with the specialty studied, was more accessible to students of prestigious, metropolitan, in particular, humanitarian, language universities, and faculties of Moscow State University. They made money by translating, journalism, near-literary forms of activity (reporting for the press or radio, covering student life, etc.).

The prevalence of employment among students depended on the profile and status of the university. So, in MVTU them. Bauman students rarely worked.

In 1918, the university church was closed, and a reading room was set up in it. Holidays "in honor of the academic goddess" Tatyana have stopped. In 1923, "Archaic and meaningless Tatyana" was noticed in the directive order by the Day of the proletarian students. However, it was not possible to completely eradicate the memory of the old student holiday. In the post-war years, Moscow students resumed, of course, in home companies, the celebration of Tatiana's Day. In the 1990s, along with the return of some customs canceled by the revolution, Tatyana's day returned. At Moscow University, they began to celebrate it officially, and the rector congratulated the students with a glass of champagne in his hand. In 1993, the building where the university church was located was handed over to the Patriarchate, and everything fell into place again. More recently, a new tradition has emerged: protests - as many newspapers note, in our time this event can be equated with a student holiday.

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

The theatrical life of Moscow had a huge impact on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of the students of Moscow University. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. this influence can be fully and above all called a revolutionary factor in the spiritual history of Russian students. Both the repertoire of Moscow theatres, and their socio-political, and even cultural and educational activities (attempts to appeal to the masses, met with a decisive rebuff from the autocracy) contributed to the growth of opposition sentiments among the students.

Students, being, firstly, the largest and most active part of the theatrical public, and, secondly, a force very influential in wide circles of the Russian intelligentsia, in turn most directly influenced the repertoire policy of Moscow theaters and the nature of the public behavior of theatrical theaters. figures.

The connections of Moscow University with the capital's theaters were not limited

As for the relationship of students with professors, you can learn about this by example from the Kazan Telegraph, 1900 .

During 1899, 169 students enjoyed the right to listen to lectures free of charge, which is 15.5% of the total number of students.

Holiday dinner

On November 1900, on the day of the founding of the Imperial Kazan University, its former students gathered in St. Petersburg for a friendly dinner at Donon's restaurant. About 20 persons participated in the dinner. Among those present at the dinner were: Senator N.P. Smirnov, the oldest student (class of 1846) V.V. Pashutin, N.A. Kremlev - former rector of Kazan University, prof. V.A. Lebedev, S.K. Bulich, S.F. Glinka, A.F. Elachich and others. A telegram was sent to the rector of Kazan University: "Former students of Kazan University, having gathered at a friendly dinner at the turn of two centuries, drink for the further prosperity of their native university and express confidence that in the twentieth century, his pupils will continue to add their names to the ranks of the luminaries of science and honest figures in all fields of public life of the dear Fatherland.

Professors, closer to students!

Fashion (democratic and aristocratic) played its essential role in the public presentation of the students.

CONCLUSION

If we give a generalized description of the students of the late 19th century, we can draw the following conclusions:

-Students were a new social group in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. We must pay tribute to the tsarist government, which supported the desire to study at the universities of young people from different social strata.

-It was during the period under review that a faculty system of teaching was formed in Russia, in which students are divided into several streams progressively specializing in their training. No less important is the transition to the annual graduation of students from the university that took place at the same time. The faculty system of education and the transition to the regular graduation of students had a decisive influence on the formation of "scientific" professions.

-The most specific attraction of the intellectual life of a pre-revolutionary student can be considered the presence in it of a constant “academic” component or educational everyday life: his participation in the educational process, the reasons and motives for missing classes, violations of the internal regulations of the educational institution, forms of responsibility for this, communication with professors (at lectures , in classroom and home-based (with professors) seminars, during informal conversations with them and home journalism, etc.), their rating in the student environment (scientific-pedagogical, personal, civil); relationships with the educational administration, the staff of the lower ministers.

-A significant part of student everyday life was devoted to leisure (intellectual and entertaining), which took place in scientific and cultural circles, reading scientific, artistic, socio-political literature, periodicals (in libraries and at home), included visits to theaters and all kinds of theatrical entertainment (cafes - chantan, operetta, etc.), cinematography, art exhibitions, organization of charity performances, concerts, musical evenings, activities of student orchestras and choirs. Leisure activities included compatriot "parties", gambling, and drinking wine. Holidays are the culmination of student entertainment, and the most important of them is the annual act of each higher educational institution.

-one of the factors that influenced the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of the Russian students were theater and literature

-The characteristic socio-psychological features of its community gave a specific color to the everyday life of students. They were expressed in the structure and situations of comradely communication, in its priorities and status systems (material wealth, class origin, intelligence, quality of study, outlook, leadership, physical development), in the unwritten code of student honor (and the activities of courts of honor), in morals and customs prevailing in the student community.

-students at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries was one of the most politically active social groups in Russian society, many political events are associated with the students of that time, it was a force that was reckoned with and royal authorities and later Soviet

-the material and living conditions of the students depended on their origin, the position of their parents and / or the ability to find a good job, scholarships were enough to pay for housing for visiting students and for a minimum subsistence For most students, in addition to parental money, the main sources of livelihood there were tutoring, tutoring, private lessons, translations, work as a copyist. Most of these activities had nothing to do with the professions that students studied at the institutes. This means that this work helped young people in mastering their future profession, it is not necessary to speak. Rather, students used for survival the cultural resources they inherited from their families or acquired while studying at the gymnasiums. The limited nature of the student labor market was partly determined by the negative attitude towards physical labor. Students of that era - most often come from a noble environment, which, despite the often encountered material insolvency, retained class prejudices: these young people could hardly imagine themselves doing hard physical work.

-a special group in the student body of that time was female students; it was much more difficult for a girl to enter a university than for a boy;

-socially, higher education plays the role of an "elevator" - at the end of the 19th century, this elevator already appeared in Russia

-the future of students depended not on academic success, but on their social status, origin, and the generosity of their parents, i.e., higher education remained the privilege of the upper classes of Russian society. Children from wealthy families who graduated from high school were sent to the authorities in this way. closing access there for students from the lower strata of society, while maintaining class differentiation.

Thus, the students at the end of the 19th century were an established independent and rather influential socio-demographic group in Russian society.

LIST OF SOURCES AND LITERATURE

1. Alekseev V.M. Student at the turn of the century. From my student memories (1898-1902) // Science of the East. M., 1982.

2. Vorovsky V.V. Bazarov and Sanin. Two nihilisms. Articles about Russian literature M., 1987. P.159.

Vydrin R. The main moments of the student movement in Russia. M., 1908. P. 14).

Ganelin Sh.I. Essays on the history of education in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Gymnasium and studying proccess in her. L., 1947.

Gessen S. Student movement in the early 60s. M., 1932.

Elfimova N.V. Social assistance to students in pre-revolutionary Russia // Russian Journal of Social Work. 1995. No. 2. S. 36-38.

Zmeev V.A. The evolution of higher education in the Russian Empire. M., 1998.

Ivanov A.E. high school Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. M., 1991.

Ivanov A.E. For the right to be a student // Questions of history. 1973. No. 1.

Ivanov A.E. Students of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th century: socio-historical fate. M., 1999.

Ivanov P. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). M., 1903.

Imperial Moscow University: 1755-1917: Encyclopedic Dictionary / comp. A.Yu. Andreev, D.A. Tsygankov. M.: 2010.

Konstantinov N.A. Essays on the history of secondary schools (gymnasiums, real schools from the end of the 19th century to February Revolution 1917). M., 1947.

Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the nineteenth century. M., 1978. P.27.

Deutsche Welle radio: Russian Service: Historical Magazine Pages of History 03.04.01.

Overview of the activities of the department of the Ministry of Public Education during the reign of Emperor Alexander III. St. Petersburg, 1901.

Svatikov S.G. Russian students before and now // The path of students. M., 1916.

Solomonov V.A. On the participation of Moscow students in the first All-Russian student strike in 1899 // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8: History. 1994. No. 2.

Tkachenko P.S. Moscow students in the social and political life of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M.: Publishing House of Moscow University, 1958. - 336 p.

The image of a Russian student at the end XIX early XX century

In contrast to closed educational institutions, in which mostly nobles studied, a significant number of students at universities were people of nobility and not rich. To make ends meet, students were often forced to earn extra money. It was in the 19th century that the habitual appearance of a Russian student was formed, renting a cheap room and earning a living by private lessons or translations. Truth, social status students was quite high.

But poverty and homelessness at all times have been companions of Russian students, who to a large extent came from a multi-strategic democratic environment. According to the inspection of Moscow University, in the 1899/1900 academic year, there were more than 50% of "insufficient" students. The student census of 1912 in St. Petersburg, which covered a little over 2 thousand people, or 5.4% of those studying in higher educational institutions of the capital, recorded 30.7% of needy students, which was also quite a lot. If this indicator is taken as the all-Russian one, for which there are reasons, since St. list of students of higher education).

Since the 1960s, Moscow students for the most part have consisted of the provincial poor, raznochintsy, who had nothing to do with the townsfolk, and huddled in the Latin Quarter, between two Bronny and Palashevsky lanes, where the unpaved streets were filled with wooden buildings with small apartments.

In addition, two large abandoned manor houses of the Chebyshev nobles, with outbuildings, on Kozikha and on Bolshaya Bronnaya were almost entirely occupied by students.

In each room of the student apartments of the Latin Quarter, four people usually lived. Four miserable beds, they are chairs, a table and a shelf of books.

The students dressed in whatever, and often four tenants had two pairs of boots and two pairs of dresses, which established a queue: today two go to lectures, and the other two sit at home; tomorrow they will go to university.

They dined in canteens or ate dry food. Instead of tea, they brewed chicory, a round stick of which, a quarter of a pound, cost three kopecks, and it was enough for four days to ten.

In the seventies of the XIX century. The students did not yet have a uniform, but still they followed the fashion, and a student could always be recognized both by his manners and by his costume. Most of the most radical ones were dressed in the fashion of the sixties: always long hair, a hat with a wide brim, mysteriously pulled over the eyes, and sometimes - the height of panache - a plaid and glasses, which gave the young men a learned look and seriousness. This is how students dressed until the beginning of the eighties, the time of reaction.

Legislative consolidation of the position of students

In 1819, the position of students was legislated. Academic degrees of the actual student, candidate, master and doctor appeared. A valid student was one who completed a university course and received a certificate. A student who completed the course and submitted a written essay to the faculty received a candidate's degree. Academic degree gave the right to receive the appropriate class in the official hierarchy: the 14th class for students (which corresponded to the rank of ensign), the 10th for candidates (company commander), the 9th for masters and the 8th for doctors.

According to Art. 39-40 of the Law “On the organization of schools” of January 24, 1803 “Every University must have a Teachers' or Pedagogical Institute. Students admitted to it receive a PhD combined with special benefits in content.

The prescribed number of candidates is predominantly filled with state pupils. They cannot, without important reasons, leave the teaching rank without having served in it for at least six years from appointment to position.

The state tried to interest the nobility in university education as well. In 1809, at the initiative of M. M. Speransky, a decree was adopted, according to which an official could not receive the rank of 7th class (college assessor) and 5th class (state councilor) without presenting a university diploma or passing a special exam. Among the academic disciplines, without which the official could not live, were Russian and one of the foreign languages, law, state economy, criminal laws, Russian history, geography, mathematics and physics. Thus, graduating from the university became a condition for a successful career.

The growing popularity of university education and the increase in the number of students led to the fact that again there was an acute shortage of professors. The government again had to invite teachers from abroad. Of course, the visiting teachers did not know Russian, and the students did not understand Latin, in which they were accustomed to lecturing. As a result, the teachers had to repeat the explanations twice: in German (for those who did not know French) and in French (for those who did not know German). The teaching of mathematics suffered least of all from this, for the assimilation of which you can do with a minimum of words.

Assuming the throne Alexander III began to establish strict rules. They also touched the university. The new charter of 1884 abolished professorial autonomy and doubled lecture fees to deprive the poor of a higher education, and in addition, a new expense was added - students were ordered to wear a new uniform: uniforms, frock coats and coats with crest buttons and caps with blue bands.

The university charter of 1884 restricted the autonomy of the university, giving the Minister of Education the right to appoint rectors (previously elected by the professorship) and not to take into account the opinion of the professorship when appointing teachers. However, the level of university education did not suffer. At the beginning of the XX century. Russian university education was fully consistent with Western European education, and university autonomy was restored in 1905.

The composition of the student body in Russia was much more democratic than, for example, in England or Germany, where almost exclusively children of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie studied at the universities. The tuition was low and there were many "scholarship holders". Beginning in the 1860s, “the majority of students were poor and indigent. In the early 70s. 72% of students lived on scholarships and allowances at Kazan University, 70 and 80% of students in Kiev and Odessa belonged to insufficient ones. In Moscow University in 1876, 59% was exempted from paying! At Moscow University in 1899-1900. 1957 students out of 4017 were exempted from the fee. In addition, 874 students received scholarships established by individuals and public organizations. According to the charter of 1884, the tuition fee was 10 rubles. annually, in 1887 it was increased to 50 rubles. Students also contributed from 40 to 50 rubles. annually for fees to professors. In the natural sciences, additional laboratory fees were due.

The history of higher education at the end of the 19th century in Russia. The legal status of students in the late XIX - early XX century Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia...

Material and living conditions of student life in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

The structure of substances in different states of aggregation Are there intermolecular interactions in gases

Presentation for the event for primary classes "April 12 - Cosmonautics Day"

Aggregate state of matter

Presentation on the topic of stress, stressful condition

Presentation - the Black Sea and human economic activity The Black Sea value for humans

The history of higher education at the end of the 19th century in Russia. The legal status of students in the late XIX - early XX century Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia...

Material and living conditions of student life in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Similar articles