Russian culture in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century. Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century Circle of problems of society in the second half of the 19th century

"Great reforms" of Alexander II

The 60s and 70s of the 19th century were a time of fundamental transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of life, both society and the state.

The reason for the transformation was the lost Crimean War. The defeat of Russia in the war showed the complete failure of the political and economic system Russia. The abolition of serfdom (peasant reform) occupies a central place in the transformations of Alexander II.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

Serfdom was immoral and condemned by all sections of Russian society.
The preservation of serfdom made it impossible to modernize the country and overcome technical and economic backwardness.
The labor of the serfs was unproductive and therefore unprofitable.
Since dependent peasants were deprived of the opportunity to fully participate in market relations, serfdom caused the narrowness of the internal market and hindered the development of capitalism.
The continuation of the serf policy created the threat of a repetition of Pugachevism.
The presence of serfdom, very similar to slavery, undermined the international authority of Russia.

In January 1857, Alexander II established Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs. At the end of 1857, a decree was issued “On the organization and improvement of the life of landowner peasants” (“ Rescript to Nazimov”), according to which in each province, from among the local landowners, provincial editorial commissions were formed to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

In 1859, the drafts drawn up in the provincial committees were submitted for generalization to the editorial commissions formed under the Main Committee.

A significant role in the commissions was played by liberal-minded figures - Ya.I. Rostovtsev (chairman of the commission) and, who replaced him in this post, N.A. Milyutin.

February 19, 1861 Mr. Alexander II signed " Regulations on peasants who emerged from serfdom" And " Manifesto about the liberation of the peasants.

The main provisions of the peasant reform:

Peasants received personal freedom (without redemption).
The peasants received the land allotment for ransom. About 20% of the ransom amount the peasant had to pay the landowner at a time. The remaining amount received a loan from the state for 49 years.
Before the redemption of the land, the peasant was considered " temporarily liable» in relation to the landowner, i.e. continued to bear feudal duties: he paid dues (“ share-cropping"") and worked out the corvee (" working off»).
The redeemed land became the property of the peasant community. The right of private ownership of land was the privilege of only noble landowners.
The “Regulations” determined the minimum amount of land that the landowners should keep. In the chernozem zone, it was 2/3 of the earth, in the non-chernozem - 1/2, in the steppe - 1/3.
If the pre-reform peasant land plot exceeded the post-reform one, then the surplus went to the landowner (the so-called " segments»).
Relationships between peasants and landowners were regulated by Statutory letters". They determined the size of allotments and duties. The landowner signed the charter not with each individual peasant, but with the community.
The peasants received the right to engage in entrepreneurship, to enter into any legal relations, to move to other classes.

In 1863, under the same conditions, the specific (royal) peasants were released.

In 1866 the state peasants received their freedom. They did not have to redeem their land, but were heavily taxed.

The peasant reform was the result of a compromise between the interests of the landlords, peasants and the government. Moreover, the interests of the landowners were taken into account as much as possible.

One of the consequences of the reform was the massive ruin of the landed estates. The nobles simply could not properly manage the redemption payments and rebuild their production on a capitalist basis.

The burden of the peasants with various payments and duties, the peasant shortage of land, agrarian overpopulation caused by the preservation of the community, and the presence of large landownership became sources of constant conflicts between peasants and landowners (the so-called. agrarian question).

The reform prevented mass protests by peasants, although local ones did take place. The most significant of them date back to 1861 - peasant uprisings in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

The main reasons for the zemstvo reform was the need to create an effective system of local self-government and the improvement of the Russian village. Local government bodies were created in the provinces and districts - provincial and district Zemsky assemblies. Zemstvo councilors (deputies) were elected by curiae. Most of the deputies were representatives of the landowning curia, i.e. Zemstvo reform raised political influence landowners (this was one of the goals of the reform), nevertheless, the zemstvo bodies were considered all-class.

Zemstvos were in charge of local economy, trade, industry, health care, public education, organization of charitable institutions, etc. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were forbidden.

Zemstvo reform is an attempt to create a new system of local self-government based on all-estate representation. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

IN 1870 City reform was carried out, in accordance with which city Dumas were created - an analogue of Zemsky assemblies in the city.

Judicial reform of 1864

It was based on the following principles: the non-verbality of the court, the equality of all subjects before the law, the independence of the court from the administration, the creation of a court jurors and the institute of sworn attorneys (lawyers).

During the reform process, Justices of the Peace for peasants, established in the counties. They tried minor criminal offenses and civil cases. Justices of the peace were elected by the county zemstvo assemblies.

Decisions in criminal cases in the district courts were made by jurors who delivered a verdict to the accused. They were elected according to special lists from persons of different classes.

The functions of the supreme court were received by the Senate.

The trial became open and competitive. This meant that the prosecutor (state prosecutor) was confronted by a lawyer independent of the administration.

In accordance with the judicial reform, the institution of notaries was created.

The judicial reform was the most democratic, radical and consistent among the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

Need military reform was determined by the general military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, which posed a threat to the security of Russia and undermined its international authority. In addition, the army, based on recruitment, did not correspond to the new social structure of Russian society. The initiator and leader of the reform was Minister of War D.A. Milyutin.

In the course of the reform, military settlements were abolished, military districts were created (headed by commanders in chief), the military ministry and the main headquarters were reorganized, and cadet and military schools were established. The military industry began to develop rapidly.

The central element of the military reform was the introduction of 1874 d. universal military service, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20. Service life was 6 years ground forces and 7 years in the Navy. For those who had an education, and depending on its level, the service life was reduced from 4 years to 6 months.

Transformations in the army became an important factor in the democratization of society, the modernization of the army, and contributed to an increase in its combat effectiveness - all this was fully manifested in the war with Turkey in 1877-1878.

Significant changes were made to the education system. The university charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of the universities. In accordance with the Charter high school(1864) gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. The first prepared mainly for admission to the university, the second - to higher technical educational establishments.

In 1865, a censorship reform was carried out. Preliminary censorship was abolished for most books and literary magazines.

Reforms of the 1860s and 70s significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political reorganization of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. There were no mechanisms for the influence of society on government policy.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. created favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the formation of capitalist relations.

Railway construction was the most important direction economic development post-reform Russia, because this new type of transport made it possible to significantly facilitate the export of grain and strengthen the country's defense capability. IN 1851 The railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow was opened.

In the 60s. began "railway fever" - a real boom in railway construction. Private capital, including foreign capital, was widely attracted to this industry. Moscow became the center of the railway network. In 1869, a road was put into operation, connecting Moscow with the southern grain-growing provinces of southern Russia.

A new stage of reinforced railway construction began in the 90s. Finance Minister S.Yu. Witte (the author of the monetary reform (introduction of the gold equivalent of the ruble), later Chairman of the Government) attached special importance to it. Now it was carried out mainly at public expense. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began. In 1896, the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), the eastern branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway, began in Manchuria.

The abolition of serfdom caused a short hitch in the industrial development of the country, because. Possession peasants left the manufactory. Soon, however, industrial development revived. The most significant successes were observed in textile production, which at that time was the leading branch of Russian industry. Significant growth was observed in the food industry, especially in the sugar industry.

It was very difficult for the metallurgical industry to adapt to the new conditions, where it was necessary not only to switch to civilian labor, but also to carry out technical re-equipment. Many Ural factories are falling into decay. However, at the same time (since the mid-70s) a new center of industrial production began to form in the Donets Basin.

The Russian economy gradually entered the world economy and began to experience cyclical fluctuations in its development. IN 1873 Russia was first affected by the global industrial crisis.

In the first post-reform 20th anniversary, the main industrial regions of Russia were finally formed - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ural and Yuzhny (Donbass). The textile industry dominated in the Moscow region. Petersburg - metalworking and mechanical engineering. The Ural and Southern regions were the base of the metallurgical industry.

Back to top 1890 -s. in Russia ends, which began in 1830-40 years, industrial revolution, i.e. the transition from manufactory to factory, from manual labor to machine. It had an industrial revolution and social consequences - there was a transition from the class structure of society to the class one. The main classes of society were the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The agricultural development of Russia in the post-reform period was not so successful. It was especially difficult in the black earth regions, where the peasants had difficulty switching to new ways of farming.

The main supplier of export grain remained the landowners' farms. This indicates that the development Agriculture in Russia it was mainly Prussian way.

Signs of the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

Large sizes of allotments - latifundia.
The owners of the latifundia are the privileged latifundist landowners.
The plots are cultivated by numerous low-paid hired workers (farm laborers) or slaves (as in the USA or in pre-reform Russia).

Only in the steppe Trans-Volga region and in the North Caucasus, where landownership was weak or non-existent, did agriculture develop according to American(farmer's) way. These areas became the breadbasket of Russia and the main supplier of bread for export.

Signs of the American way of development of capitalism in agriculture:

Put on small sizes.
The allotment belongs to the farmer. In Russia they are called fists.
The farmer himself and a few laborers handle the allotment.

After the reform of 1861 in the Russian countryside, the social differentiation- the process of separation from the total mass of the peasantry of the rural bourgeoisie ( fists), owners of strong peasant farms serving their own needs ( middle peasants) and the rural poor ( laborers).

The development of capitalism in the countryside was hampered by the preservation of the community ("rural society"). The community acted as the owner of the land. She was engaged in the distribution of land allotments (in order to equalize the chances of a good harvest, the peasants received land in strips, that is, in different parts of the communal lands). The main organs of community administration were the village assembly and the village headman elected by him. One of the fundamental principles for the community was the principle of mutual responsibility.

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander II provoked opposition from the conservatives. The brightest representative of this trend was M.N. Katkov is the editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti, who left after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. liberal camp. He believed that the reforms led to the separation of the intelligentsia from the people and violated the previously existing unity of the people with the king.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Russia, the ideas of liberalism are being further developed, which are approved in a number of zemstvos. Liberal zemstvo leaders put forward the slogan of "positive work in the field", and attempts were also made to create an all-Russian zemstvo center. The Russian liberals saw the main goal in the establishment of constitutional government. The most famous figures of the liberal Zemstvo movement were I.I. Petrunkevich, D.N. Shipov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin.

At the same time, a significant part of the educated society was captured by revolutionary sentiments. This direction of the social movement quickly lost its noble character. The children of peasants, philistines, the clergy, the impoverished nobility quickly turned into intellectuals - raznochintsev standing outside the estates. Parting with their past, they quickly ceased to respect the foundations, traditions ( nihilism). The mood of general pessimism and hatred of the state was intensified by the introduction in 1861 of high tuition fees at universities. It was the raznochintsy intelligentsia that became the main base of the revolutionary movement in post-reform Russia.

The reform of 1861 in no way satisfied the radical public. Chernyshevsky becomes her idol and inspiration. Obviously, he was the main organizer of the "proclamation campaign" of 1861. The proclamations circulating in Moscow and St. Petersburg contained demands for more decisive and consistent reforms, reinforced by the threat of a popular uprising. In response, the authorities in 1861-1862. made a number of arrests, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to hard labor. Throughout the 1860s. the radical intelligentsia tried several times to create a strong organization. However, neither the "Land and Freedom" group (1861-1863, Chernyshevsky's organization), nor the circle of N.A. could become such. Ishytin (whose member D.V. Karakozov shot at Alexander II in 1866), nor “National Reprisal” (1869) under the leadership of S.T. Nechaev (members of the organization killed student Ivanov on suspicion of betrayal). S.T. Nechaev is the author of the book " Revolutionary catechism».

Revolutionary Populism

At the turn of the 1860-1870s. the formation of the ideology of revolutionary populism. It found its final expression in the works of M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrova, P.N. Tkachev. Firmly convinced that mankind in its development must inevitably come to socialism, these ideologists placed special hopes on the peasant community in Russia, considering it as the germ of socialism (the theory of “communal socialism” by A.I. Herzen). It was typical for populists negative attitude to capitalism, which could destroy the peasant community. Converging on the basic theoretical principles, the leading ideologues of populism proposed various means for their implementation.

M.A. Bakunin ( 6untarian direction of populism) saw such a means in an immediate peasant revolt, to which the peasants should be inspired by their example by the revolutionary intelligentsia. At the same time, Bakunin and his supporters denied the need for a state, relying on the self-government of communities. M.A. Bakunin and his colleague P. Kropotkin became the founders of Russian anarchism.

P.L. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) supported the idea of a peasant revolution and considered revolutionary intellectuals as a force capable of inspiring the masses to participate in it through prolonged propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev ( conspiratorial direction) proceeded from the fact that the gap between the people and the intelligentsia is too significant and, in essence, insurmountable. It is impossible to raise the peasants to a conscious revolutionary movement. The intelligentsia must liberate the community by seizing power by means of an armed coup and carrying out the necessary transformations from above.

In the late 1860s - early 1870s. in Russia, a number of populist circles arose among the students. IN 1874 d. their members start mass going to the people for the purpose of conducting revolutionary propaganda. However, it was not possible to raise the peasants to the revolution - all their calls were met with distrust and hostility among the peasantry. The reason for this lay in the belief in the "good king" that persisted among the peasantry.

After unsuccessfully going to the people, the populists decide to change their tactics and move on to " settled» (constant, systematic) propaganda. IN 1876 g. arises " Earth and Will"(second) - an organization that played the role of a coordinating center for populist propaganda. Its unsuccessful activities lead the populists to the idea of the need to abandon propaganda methods of struggle. IN 1879 Zemlya i Volya is split into Black Repartition and Narodnaya Volya.

« Black redistribution”, whose leaders were G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod and V.I. Zasulich, remained on the positions of propaganda. Soon its members left Russia and in 1883 created the first Russian Marxist organization in Geneva. Emancipation of labor».

« People's Will” united the populists - supporters of the tactics of individual terror. This method of struggle also existed earlier as a disorganizing method of work for Land and Freedom. The most famous terrorist of that time was V. Zasulich (later a member of the Black Redistribution), who in 1878 made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor D.F. Trepov. Later, the jury acquitted Zasulich, thereby justifying political terror in general. Zasulich herself later retired from terror.

The leaders of the "Narodnaya Volya" were A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya and V.N. Figner.

The activities of the "Narodnaya Volya" led to retaliatory measures from the government. Not wanting to completely curtail the reformist policy, Alexander II begins to pursue a kind of policy (“ Dictatorship of the Heart"). On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was formed. M. T. Loris-Melikov was put at its head, who, on the one hand, continued the merciless struggle against the revolutionary underground; on the other hand, he carried out a number of measures that softened the censorship and arbitrariness of the local administration. In addition, Loris-Melikov presented to the tsar a draft of democratic reforms, providing, in particular, for the convening of a central all-Russian zemstvo body (“ Constitution of Loris-Melikov"). He was enthusiastically received by the liberals and approved by Alexander II.

March 1, 1881 Mr. Alexander II was killed by Narodnaya Volya. His son came to power Alexander III. Loris-Melikov's project was rejected. Reaction reigned in the country, and the populist organizations were crushed. People's Volunteers Perovskaya, Mikhailov, Kibalchich, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were hanged.

In the post-reform period, under conditions of intensive development of industry, the labor movement becomes a noticeable phenomenon in social life. In 1875, the “South Russian Union of Workers” was founded in Odessa (headed by E.O. Zaslavsky), in 1878 in St. Petersburg, the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (V.P. Obnorsky, S.N. Khalturin). Their participants advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, political freedom, social reorganization. The workers' organizations, being essentially Marxist, were strongly influenced by the Narodniks during this period.

In the 80s. the labor movement becomes more organized, mass strikes begin. The most significant of these took place in 1885 city at Morozov's textile factory in Ivanovo-Voznesensk ("Morozov strike"). In the 90s. there is a new upsurge in the strike movement. The protests of the workers prompted the government to adopt a number of laws.

The internal policy of the autocracy at the end of the XIX century.

The reign of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) went down in history as the time of "counter-reforms". Ideologists of the new political course Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (educator of the new emperor), Minister of the Interior D.A. Tolstoy famous publicist and public figure M.N. Katkov, who considered any borrowing from the West harmful and insisted on correcting the reforms already carried out.

The practical implementation of the new course was reduced to the following:

The introduction of the institute of Zemsky chiefs ( 1889 ). They were appointed by the Minister of the Interior from among the local noble landowners and exercised administrative and police control and judicial functions over the peasants. The power of the zemstvo chiefs strengthened the positions of the landlords and the government.
Zemstvo counter-reform ( 1890 ). During the elections to the zemstvos, the number of vowels from the landowners increased due to the reduction of the property qualification. For urban residents, the qualification, on the contrary, increased. All these measures were designed to strengthen the position of the nobility in local governments.
The property and educational qualifications for jurors increased, which increased the representation of the nobility (1887).
University Charter 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of universities. Representatives of the "lower classes" found it difficult to get an education. " Cook's Children Circular» ( 1887 ) recommended closing the doors of the gymnasium to children not from noble families.
In accordance with " Regulations on Measures for the Protection of State Security and Public Peace» ( 1881 ) a state of emergency could be declared in any part of the empire. Local authorities received the right to arrest "suspicious persons", exile them without trial for up to 5 years in any locality and bring them to a military court, close educational institutions and press organs, and suspend the activities of zemstvos.
The attitude towards religious dissent was toughened, the rights of persons of non-Orthodox faith, especially Jews, were limited. The government pursued a policy of forcible Russification of the national outskirts.

Considering the domestic policy of Alexander III, it is important to emphasize that the government carried out a number of measures aimed at improving the situation of peasants and workers.

IN 1881 d. all former landlord peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption, i.e. temporary relationships were cancelled. The Peasants' Bank was created (1882), which was supposed to assist peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of privately owned lands. In 1883 - 1885. the poll tax from the peasants was reduced and then abolished.

In the 1980s, the first attempts were made to regulate relations between workers and industrialists, to develop the foundations of labor legislation: the labor of minors was prohibited, fines were reduced, and a factory inspectorate was established to monitor compliance with working conditions.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

After the end of the Crimean War, the main task of Russian foreign policy was the revision of the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856). Taking advantage of the contradictions between European states (primarily Prussia and France), Russian diplomacy headed by A.M. Gorchakov was able to successfully solve this problem by declaring in 1870 of the refusal to comply with the terms of the Paris Treaty. Already in the early 1870s. Russia creates a navy on the Black Sea, restores destroyed fortresses and proceeds to resolve the Eastern Question.

1877-1878 gg. - the last Russian-Turkish war.

Reasons for the war:

Russia's desire to solve the Eastern question.
The need to assist the fraternal Balkan peoples in their liberation struggle against the Ottoman yoke.
Russia is faced with the task of returning South Bessarabia, lost as a result of the Crimean War.
Russia is striving to regain the international prestige it lost after the defeat in the Crimean War.

April 12, 1877 d. Russia declared war Ottoman Empire. fighting went simultaneously in the Balkans (under the leadership of I.V. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev) and in the Transcaucasus (M.T. Loris-Melikov). The main events of the war were the defense of the Shipka Pass and the siege of the Turkish fortress of Plevna (it was only possible to take it in November 1877, E.I. Totleben participated in the siege). In Transcaucasia, the fortresses of Batum and Erzurum were taken. IN February 1878 in the town San Stefano an agreement was signed near Constantinople, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received complete independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. Russia returned South Bessarabia.

However, the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and in the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers and, above all, Germany. They protested against the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. In summer 1878 A congress was held in Berlin, at which Russia found itself in complete isolation. As a result, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania retained their independence, but Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the North received full autonomy, and the South remained a Turkish province. Turkey's colonies were divided among European states.

At the end of the nineteenth century. The German Empire is growing stronger and is beginning to be perceived by the Russian government as the most dangerous enemy. Also in 1873 d. Russia agrees to the creation of " Union of the Three Emperors"with the participation of Austria-Hungary and Germany, hoping in this way to prevent an aggravation of relations with them. However, the disagreements between its members turned out to be too great and in 1878 the "Union" broke up.

In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded the so-called. Triple Alliance, directed against France, but also threatening Russia.

The Russian government was forced to start looking for an ally, now for a joint struggle against the Triple Alliance. In 1891-92. a Franco-Russian alliance is created. That's how it started Entente(from French - consent), opposing the Triple Alliance.

An important task facing the Russian Foreign Ministry was the demarcation (clear definition) of the border with China. IN 1858 The Aigun Treaty was signed, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River. The Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur remained in the joint possession of both states. IN 1860 d. - Beijing Treaty. Taking advantage of China's weakness, Russia annexes the Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur.

Another direction of foreign policy was the accession of Central Asia.

In 1864, the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, having suffered a series of military defeats, recognized their vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which declared a gazavat to Russia, was destroyed as a state: in 1876 its lands were included in the Turkestan region. The fight against the Turkmen tribes ended only in 1881, when M.D. Skobelev took Ashgabat and Geok-Tepe.

Accession to Russia was a boon for the local population: feudal civil strife ceased; blood feud began to fade into the past; slavery was abolished. The local population retained their language, religion, culture, and national customs.

IN 1867 Alaska was sold to the US for $7.2 million.

Culture of the second half of the XIX century.

The basis of secondary education was still made up of gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, the right to enter the university was given only to gymnasiums. In 1878, the Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses were opened, which laid the foundation for higher education for women.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a galaxy of outstanding scientists. In the field of mathematics, P.L. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov, S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first female professor of mathematics). In chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed the theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.

Major scientific discoveries have been made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and carried out the transformation for the first time alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. The main direction of scientific activity of A.S. Popov was the study of electromagnetic phenomena, its result was the invention of radio. The works of N.I. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro- and aeromechanics. The first experiments on the design of aircraft (aircraft) were made by A.F. Mozhaisky.

Biological sciences during this period developed under the influence of evolutionary doctrine. Works by I.I. Mechnikov in evolutionary embryology, pathology and immunology were recognized by scientists around the world. At the origins of the national physiological school was I.M. Sechenov. One of the directions of his scientific activity was the study of the human psyche. I.P. Pavlov carried out wide experimental studies in the field of higher nervous activity and formulated the main provisions of the theory conditioned reflexes. The development of agronomic science is associated with the names of V.V. Dokuchaev (the founder of modern soil science) and K.A. Timiryazev (researcher of plant physiology).

New generalizing works on Russian history appear: the 29-volume " History of Russia since ancient times" CM. Solovyov and " Russian history course» his student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such prominent representatives of Russian historical science as S.F. begin their scientific, pedagogical and social activities. Platonov and M.N. Pokrovsky. A notable event in scientific life was the work of M.M. Kovalevsky on world history.

Russian geographers and travelers continue to explore the little-studied territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tienshansky during his travels studied the regions of Central and Central Asia. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay - the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The main process taking place in Russian literature and the art of this period was democratized. Artistic culture acquires a simpler, generally accessible character.

Second half of the 19th century - the most important stage in the development of domestic literature. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, I.S. Turgenev, E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.A. Fet and many others had a huge impact on Russian and world literature.

In painting, as well as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. IN 1870 g. arises " Association of Traveling Exhibitions”, which united the majority of realist artists - I.N. Kramskoy (portrait of L.N. Tolstoy), A.K. Savrasov (" The Rooks Have Arrived”), I.E. Repin ( "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "They Didn't Wait", "The Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan"), IN AND. Surikov ( "Boyar Morozova", "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", "Conquest of Siberia by Yermak"), who opposed "academism" in the visual arts.

In terms of his aesthetic views, the outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. Antokolsky. He is the author of sculptural portraits "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

According to the project of M.O. Mikeshin in Novgorod erected a monument " Millennium of Russia". Mikeshin was also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin - in Moscow and Lermontov - in Pyatigorsk).

The use of folk motifs was distinguished in these years by the musical art. The motifs of folk music were most vividly presented in the operas of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (" Mermaid”), M.P. Mussorgsky (" Boris Godunov"), ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov (" royal bride”), A.P. Borodin (" Prince Igor”), who made up a circle of musicians known as“ mighty bunch". The most popular in these years was the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky, who created outstanding opera ( "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballet ( "Swan Lake", "The Nutcracker") and symphonic (1st Piano Concerto) works.

In a number of architectural styles, eclecticism dominated (a combination of features of different styles in one work). A variety of eclecticism was the pseudo-Russian style.

Buildings in Moscow became examples of this style. Historical Museum (architects A.A. Semenov and V.O. Sherwood), City Duma(architect D.N. Chichagov), the current Gumma(architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

For the widest strata of Russian society, one of the most available species art was theater. The basis of the repertoire of both metropolitan and provincial theaters were plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, established by M.S. Shchepkin, successfully continued and developed by outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovskie, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered the center of the theatrical life in Russia.

In the second half of the 50s of the XIX century. (the period of preparation of the peasant reform) in the social political life Russia has seen a certain convergence of different ideological directions. The whole society understood the need to renew the country. It spurred and stimulated the beginning of the transformational activity of the government. However, the process of implementing the reform and its results aggravated and deepened the ideological and political confrontation in society.

The main thing is the preservation of the old socio-political system and, above all, the autocratic system with its police apparatus, the privileged position of the nobility, and the lack of democratic freedoms. An equally significant reason is the unresolved agrarian-peasant issue, which remained central in the public life of the country. The half-heartedness of the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s and fluctuations in the government's course (either measures towards liberalization, or intensification of repressions) also intensified the social movement. A particular reason was the diversity and severity of social contradictions. To the former - between peasants and landowners - new ones were added, caused by development - between workers and entrepreneurs, the liberal bourgeoisie and the conservative nobility, between the autocracy and the peoples that were part of the Russian Empire.

A distinctive feature of the public life of Russia is the second half of XIX in. there was a lack of powerful anti-government actions of the broad masses of the people. Peasant unrest that broke out after 1861 quickly subsided, the labor movement was in its infancy. The people retained tsarist illusions. The bourgeoisie also showed political inertia. All this provided ground for the triumph of militant conservatism and provided an extremely narrow social basis for the activities of the revolutionaries.

In the post-reform period, three directions in the social movement finally took shape - conservatives, liberals and radicals. They had different political goals, organizational forms and methods of struggle, spiritual and moral-ethical positions.

Conservatives

The social basis of this trend was the reactionary nobility, clergy, petty bourgeoisie, merchants and a significant part of the peasantry.

Conservatism in the second half of the 19th century. remained within the ideological framework of the theory of "official nationality". Autocracy was still declared to be the most important pillar of the state, ensuring the greatness and glory of Russia. Orthodoxy was proclaimed the basis of the spiritual life of the people and actively planted. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people, which meant the absence of ground for social conflicts. In this, the conservatives saw the originality of the historical path of Russia.

In the domestic political field, conservatives fought for the inviolability of the autocracy, against the liberal reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, and in subsequent decades sought to limit their results. IN economic sphere they stood up for the inviolability of private property, the preservation of landownership and the community. In the social field, they insisted on strengthening the position of the nobility - the foundation of the state and maintaining the class division of society. In foreign policy, they developed the ideas of pan-Slavism - the unity of the Slavic peoples around Russia. In the spiritual sphere, representatives of the conservative intelligentsia defended the principles of a patriarchal way of life, religiosity, and unconditional submission to power. The main target for their criticism was the theory and practice of nihilists who denied traditional moral principles. (F. M. Dostoevsky in the novel "Demons" exposed the immorality of their activities.)

The ideologists of the conservatives were K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Tolstoy, M. N. Katkov. The spread of their ideas was facilitated by the bureaucracy, the church and the reactionary press. M. N. Katkov in the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti" pushed the government's activities in a reactionary direction, formulated the main ideas of conservatism and shaped the public in this spirit.

The Conservatives were state guards. They had a negative attitude towards any mass social actions, advocating order, calmness and traditionalism.

liberals

The social basis of the liberal trend was made up of bourgeois landlords, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia (scientists, writers, journalists, doctors, etc.).

They defended the idea of a common path with Western Europe historical development Russia.

In the domestic political field, the liberals insisted on the introduction of constitutional principles, democratic freedoms and the continuation of reforms. They advocated the creation of an all-Russian elected body (Zemsky Sobor), the expansion of the rights and functions of local self-government bodies (zemstvos). The political ideal for them was a constitutional monarchy. The liberals advocated the preservation of a strong executive power, considering it a necessary factor of stability, and called for measures to promote the formation of a rule of law state and civil society in Russia.

In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and freedom of enterprise, advocated the preservation of private property, lower redemption payments. The demand to abolish class privileges, the recognition of the inviolability of the individual, her right to free spiritual development were the basis of their moral and ethical views.

The liberals stood for the evolutionary path of development, considering reforms to be the main method of social and political modernization of Russia. They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Therefore, their activity mainly consisted in submitting “addresses” to the name of the tsar - petitions with a proposal for a program of transformations. The most "left" liberals sometimes used conspiratorial meetings of their supporters.

The ideologists of the liberals were scientists, publicists, zemstvo figures (K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev, D. I. Shakhovskoy, F. I. Rodichev, P. A. Dolgorukov). Zemstvos, magazines (Russian Thought, Vestnik Evropy) and scientific societies were their organizational support. The liberals did not create a stable and institutionalized opposition to the government.

Features of Russian liberalism: its noble character due to the political weakness of the bourgeoisie and readiness for rapprochement with conservatives. They were united by the fear of a popular “rebellion” and the actions of radicals.

Radicals

Representatives of this direction launched active anti-government activities. Unlike conservatives and liberals, they strove for violent methods of transforming Russia and a radical reorganization of society (revolutionary path).

In the second half of the XIX century. the radicals did not have a broad social basis, although objectively they expressed the interests of the working people (peasants and workers). Their movement was attended by people from different strata of society (raznochintsy), who devoted themselves to serving the people.

Radicalism was largely provoked by the reactionary policies of the government and the conditions of Russian reality: police arbitrariness, lack of freedom of speech, meetings and organizations. Therefore, only secret organizations could exist in Russia itself. Radical theorists were generally forced to emigrate and operate abroad. This contributed to the strengthening of ties between the Russian and Western European revolutionary movements.

In the radical direction of the second half of the XIX century. the dominant position was occupied by a current, the ideological basis of which was the theory of a special, non-capitalist development of Russia and "communal socialism".

In the history of the movement of radicals of the second half of the XIX century. three stages are distinguished: 60s - the folding of the revolutionary-democratic ideology and the creation of secret raznochinsk circles; 70s - the formation of the populist doctrine, the special scope of the agitational and terrorist activities of organizations of revolutionary populists; 80-90s - the activation of liberal populists and the beginning of the spread of Marxism, on the basis of which the first social democratic groups were created; in the mid-1990s, the popularity of populism weakened and a short period of widespread enthusiasm for Marxist ideas among the democratically minded intelligentsia.

"Sixties"

The rise of the peasant movement in 1861-1862. was the people's response to the injustice of the February 19 reform. This activated the radicals, who hoped for a peasant uprising.

In the 1960s, two centers of a radical trend emerged. One is around the editorial office of The Bell, published by A. I. Herzen in London. He propagated his theory of "communal socialism" and sharply criticized the predatory conditions for the liberation of the peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. Its ideologist was N. G. Chernyshevsky, the idol of the raznochinnoy youth of that time. He also criticized the government for the essence of the reform, dreamed of socialism, but unlike A. I. Herzen, he saw the need for Russia to use the experience of the European development model. In 1862 N. G. Chernyshevsky was arrested, sentenced to penal servitude and exile to Siberia.

Therefore, he himself could not take an active part in the public struggle, but on the basis of his ideas, several secret organizations were formed in the early 60s. They included N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solov'evichi, G. E. Blagosvetlov, N. I. Utin, and others. In the proclamations “Bow to the lordly peasants from their well-wishers”, “To the younger generation”, “Young Russia”, “What should the army do?” and others, they explained to the people the tasks of the upcoming revolution, substantiated the need for the liquidation of the autocracy, the democratic transformation of Russia, and a fair solution to the agrarian question.

"Land and freedom" (1861-1864)

The landowners considered the article by N. P. Ogarev “What do the people need?”, Published in June 1861 in the Bell, as their program document. She warned the people against premature unprepared speeches, called for the unification of all revolutionary forces. The main requirements were the transfer of land to the peasants, the development of local self-government and preparation for future active actions to transform the country.

Land and Freedom was the first major revolutionary-democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students.

The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities. At the end of 1862, a Russian military-revolutionary organization, created in the Kingdom of Poland, joined the Land and Freedom.

The first secret organizations did not last long

The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations were arrested, others emigrated. The government succeeded in repulsing the attack of the radicals of the first half of the 60s. There was a sharp turn in public opinion against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures who previously held democratic or liberal positions moved to the camp of conservatives (M. N. Katkov and others).

In the second half of the 1960s, secret circles reappeared. Their members preserved the ideological heritage of N. G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a people's revolution in Russia, they switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to embody their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of the circle of N. A. Ishutin D. V. Karakozov made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander II.

In 1869, the teacher S. G. Nechaev and the journalist P. N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle, S. G. Nechaev left the border for a while, but in the autumn of 1869 he returned and founded the organization "People's Reprisal" in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism, demanded unquestioning obedience from the participants. For disagreeing with the methods of S. G. Nechaev, student I. I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S. G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used the lawsuit against him to discredit the revolutionaries. "Nechaevshchina" for some time became a serious lesson for the next generations of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.

At the turn of the 60-70s, largely on the basis of the ideas of A. I. Herzen and N. G. Chernyshevsky, the populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among the democratically minded intellectuals of the last third of the 19th century, who considered it their duty to serve the people. Among the populists there were two trends: revolutionary and liberal.

Revolutionary Populists

The main ideas of the revolutionary Narodniks are: capitalism in Russia is implanted "from above" and has no social roots on Russian soil; the future of the country is in communal socialism, since the peasants can accept socialist ideas; transformations must be carried out by a revolutionary method, by the forces of the peasantry, led by an organization of revolutionaries. Their ideologists - M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov and P. N. Tkachev - developed theoretical basis three currents of revolutionary populism - rebellious (anarchist), propaganda and conspiratorial.

M. A. Bakunin believed that the Russian peasant was a rebel by nature and was ready for a revolution. Therefore, the task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people and kindle an all-Russian revolt. Viewing the state as an instrument of injustice and oppression, he called for its destruction and the creation of a federation of self-governing free communities. This idea became the basis of the theory of anarchism.

P. L. Lavrov did not consider the people ready for revolution. Therefore, he focused on propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry. "Wake up" the peasants were supposed to be "critically thinking individuals" - the advanced part of the intelligentsia.

P. N. Tkachev, like P. L. Lavrov, did not consider the peasant to be ready for revolution. At the same time, he called the Russian people "a communist by instinct", which does not need to be taught socialism. In his opinion, a narrow group of conspirators (professional revolutionaries), having captured state power will quickly draw the people into socialist reconstruction.

In 1874, relying on the ideas of M. A. Bakunin, more than 1,000 young revolutionaries undertook a mass “going to the people”, hoping to raise the peasants to revolt. The results were negligible. The Narodniks faced tsarist illusions and the possessive psychology of the peasants. The movement was crushed, the agitators were arrested.

"Land and freedom" (1876-1879)

In 1876, the surviving participants in the “going to the people” formed a new secret organization, which in 1878 took the name “Land and Freedom”. Its program provided for the implementation of the socialist revolution through the overthrow of the autocracy, the transfer of all land to the peasants and the introduction of "secular self-government" in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G. V. Plekhanov, A. D. Mikhailov, S. M. Kravchinsky, N. A. Morozov, V. N. Figner and others.

A second "going to the people" was carried out - with the aim of long-term agitation among the peasants. The landowners also engaged in agitation of workers and soldiers, helped to organize several strikes. By 1876, with the participation of "Earth and Freedom" in St. Petersburg, the first political demonstration in Russia was held on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G. V. Plekhanov addressed the audience, calling on them to fight for land and freedom for the peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration, many of the participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to penal servitude or exile. GV Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.

In 1878, V. I. Zasulich made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor F. F. Trepov and wounded him. However, the mood of society and the circumstances of the case were such that the jury acquitted her, and F. F. Trepov was forced to resign.

Some of the Narodniks again returned to the idea of the necessity of a terrorist struggle. They were motivated to do so by government repressions and a thirst for active work. Disputes over tactical and program issues led to a split in the Land and Freedom.

"Black redistribution"

In 1879, part of the landowners (G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, L. G. Deich, P. B. Axelrod) formed the Black Redistribution organization (1879-1881). They remained faithful to the main program principles of "Earth and Ashes" and agitation and propaganda methods of activity.

"People's Will"

In the same year, another part of the landowners created the organization "Narodnaya Volya" (1879-1881). It was headed by A. I. Zhelyabov, A. D. Mikhailov, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, V. N. Figner and others. They were members of the Executive Committee - the center and headquarters of the organization.

The Narodnaya Volya program reflected their disappointment in the revolutionary potential of the peasant masses. They believed that the people were crushed and brought to a slave state by the tsarist government. Therefore, their main task was to fight the state. The program requirements of the Narodnaya Volya included: preparing a political coup and overthrowing the autocracy; the convocation of the Constituent Assembly and the establishment of a democratic system in the country; the destruction of private property, the transfer of land to the peasants, factories - to the workers. (Many program provisions of the Narodnaya Volya were adopted at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries by their followers - the party of socialist revolutionaries.)

The Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of terrorist actions against representatives of the tsarist administration, but considered the assassination of the tsar to be their main goal. They assumed that this would cause a political crisis in the country and a popular uprising. However, in response to the terror, the government stepped up its repression. Most of the Narodnaya Volya were arrested. S. L. Perovskaya, who remained at large, organized an assassination attempt on the tsar. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded and died a few hours later.

This act did not live up to the expectations of the populists. He once again confirmed the ineffectiveness of terrorist methods of struggle, led to an increase in the reaction and police arbitrariness in the country. In general, the activities of the Narodnaya Volya to a large extent slowed down the possibility of the evolutionary transformation of Russia.

Liberal Populists

This trend, while sharing the idea of the revolutionary populists about a special, non-capitalist path of development of Russia, differed from them in its rejection of violent methods of struggle. The liberal populists did not play a prominent role in the social movement of the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, their influence increased. This was due to the loss of authority of the revolutionary populists in radical circles due to disappointment in the terrorist methods of struggle. The liberal populists expressed the interests of the peasants, demanded the abolition of the remnants of serfdom, the abolition of landownership, and the prevention of the "ulcers" of capitalism in Russia. They called for reforms to gradually improve the lives of the people. They chose cultural and educational work among the population (the theory of "small deeds") as the main direction of their activity. For this purpose, they used the printed organs (magazine " Russian wealth”), zemstvos and various public organizations. The ideologists of the liberal populists were N. K. Mikhailovsky, N. F. Danielson, and V. P. Vorontsov.

Radicals in the 80-90s of the XIX century. During this period, radical changes took place in the radical movement. The revolutionary populists lost their role as the main anti-government force. Powerful repression fell upon them, from which they could not recover. Many active participants in the movement of the 1970s became disillusioned with the revolutionary potential of the peasantry. In this regard, the radical movement split into two opposing and even hostile camps. The former remained committed to the idea of peasant socialism, the latter saw in the proletariat the main force of social progress.

Emancipation of Labor Group

Former active participants in the "Black Redistribution" G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, L. G. Deich and V. N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In this Western European theory, created by K. Marx and F. Engels in the middle of the 19th century, they were attracted by the idea of achieving socialism through the proletarian revolution.

In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. Its program: a complete break with populism and populist ideology; propaganda of Marxism; struggle against autocracy; creation of a workers' party. They considered the most important condition for social progress in Russia to be a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the driving force of which would be the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They regarded the peasantry as a reactionary force in society, as a political antipode to the proletariat.

Propaganda of Marxism in the Russian revolutionary environment, they launched a sharp criticism of the populist theory about a special non-capitalist path of development of Russia. The Emancipation of Labor group operated abroad and was not associated with the labor movement that was emerging in Russia.

In Russia itself in 1883-1892. several Marxist circles were formed (D. I. Blagoeva, N. E. Fedoseeva, M. I. Brusneva, and others). They saw their task in studying Marxism and propagating it among workers, students and petty employees. However, they were cut off from the labor movement.

The ideological and theoretical activities of the Emancipation of Labor group abroad and Marxist circles in Russia prepared the ground for the emergence of a Russian political party of the working class.

Workers' organizations

The labor movement in the 1970s and 1980s developed spontaneously and unorganized. The workers put forward only economic demands - higher wages, shorter working hours, abolition of fines. Unlike Western Europe, the Russian workers had neither their own political organizations nor trade unions. The "South Russian Workers' Union" (1875) and the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" (1878-1880) failed to lead the struggle of the proletariat and give it a political character.

The largest event was the strike at the Nikolskaya manufactory of the manufacturer T. S. Morozov in Orekhovo-Zuyevo in 1885 (Morozov strike). The workers for the first time demanded state intervention in their relations with the factory owners.

As a result, a law was issued in 1886 on the procedure for hiring and firing, streamlining fines and paying wages. The institute of factory inspectors was introduced, who were obliged to monitor the implementation of the law. At the same time, the law increased the criminal liability of workers for participating in strikes. From now on, the government could not but take into account the so-called labor question, which gradually acquired the same acuteness as the agrarian-peasant one.

"Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class"

In the 90s of the XIX century. in Russia there has been an industrial boom. This helped to increase the size of the working class and create more favorable conditions for its struggle. Strikes began for workers employed in various industries: textile workers, miners, foundry workers, railway workers. The strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Urals, and other regions of the country retained an economic and spontaneous character, but became more massive in terms of the number of participants.

In 1895, scattered Marxist circles in St. Petersburg united in a new organization - the Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. Its founders were V. I. Ulyanov (Lenin), Yu. O. Zederbaum (L. Martov) and others. Similar organizations were created in Moscow, Yekaterinoslav, Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Kyiv. They tried to lead the strike movement, published leaflets and sent propagandists to workers' circles to spread Marxism among the proletariat. Under the influence of the Union of Struggle, strikes of textile workers, metal workers, workers of a stationery factory, sugar and other factories began in St. Petersburg. The strikers demanded that the working day be reduced to 10.5 hours, that wages be raised, and that wages be paid on time. wages. The stubborn struggle of the workers in the summer of 1896 and in the winter of 1897, on the one hand, forced the government to make concessions: a law was issued to reduce the working day to 11.5 hours. On the other hand, it brought down repressions on Marxist and workers' organizations, some of whose members were exiled to Siberia.

Among the Social Democrats who remained at liberty in the second half of the 1990s, "legal Marxism" began to spread. P. B. Struve, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, and others, recognizing some of the provisions of Marxism, defended the thesis of the historical inevitability of the inviolability of capitalism, criticized the liberal Narodniks, and proved the regularity and progressiveness of the development of capitalism in Russia. They advocated a reformist way of transforming the country in a democratic direction.

Under the influence of the "legal Marxists", a part of the Social Democrats in Russia switched to the position of "Economism". The "economists" saw the main task of the labor movement in improving working and living conditions. They put forward only economic demands and believed that the workers should not waste their energy on political struggle, since the bourgeoisie would take advantage of its fruits.

On the whole, among Russian Marxists in late XIX in. there was no unity. Some (led by V. I. Ulyanov-Lenin) advocated the meeting of a political party that would lead the workers to carry out the socialist revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat (the political power of the workers), while others, denying the revolutionary path of development, proposed limiting themselves to the struggle for better conditions life and labor of the working people of Russia.

Social movement in the second half of the XIX century. unlike the previous time, it became an important factor in the political life of the country. The variety of directions and currents, views on ideological, theoretical and tactical issues reflected the complexity of the social structure and the acuteness of social contradictions characteristic of the transitional period of post-reform Russia. In the social movement of the second half of the XIX century. there was no direction capable of carrying out the evolutionary modernization of the country. However, socio-political forces were identified that played a major role in the revolutionary events of the early 20th century, and the foundations were laid for the formation of political parties in the future.

The position of Russia in the second half of the 19th century remained extremely difficult: it stood on the edge of the abyss. The economy and finances were undermined by the Crimean War, and National economy bound by the chains of serfdom could not develop.

Legacy of Nicholas I

The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most unsuccessful since the Time of Troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of a constitution in the country, the Russian emperor relied on an extensive bureaucratic bureaucracy. the ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis “the people and the tsar are one”. The result of the reign of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe, the general illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of the small-town authorities in all spheres of public life.

It was necessary to urgently solve the following tasks:

In foreign policy, to restore the international prestige of Russia. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
In domestic policy, to create all conditions for stabilizing domestic economic growth. Solve the sore peasant question. overcome the gap from Western countries in the industrial sector through the introduction of new technologies.
When solving internal problems, the government involuntarily had to face the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be taken into account.

After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a breath of fresh air, the country needed reforms. The new Emperor Alexander II understood this.

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was marked by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles revolted. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor brought an army into the territory of Poland and crushed the rebellion.

Social movements in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main currents :

conservative trend. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, later D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Pobedonostsev joined him. The conservatives believed that Russia could develop only according to three criteria - autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
Liberal movement. The founder of this trend was the prominent historian Chicherin B.N., later Kavelin K.D. and Muromtsev S.A. joined him. Liberals advocated a constitutional monarchy, the right of the individual and the independence of the church from the state.
revolutionary current. The ideologists of this current were A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later N. A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the magazines Kolokol and Sovremennik. The views of theoretical writers were based on the complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for all would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately bypassing the stage of capitalism, and the peasantry would help it in this.

One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were “Land and Freedom”, “Great Russian”, “People's Reprisal”, “Ruble Society”, etc. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment was promoted in order to agitate them.

The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the raznochintsy to overthrow the government. This led to the split of the revolutionaries into two camps - practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and cracked down on prominent statesmen. The organization "Land and Freedom", later renamed the "People's Will" issued a death sentence to Alexander II. The sentence was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful assassination attempts. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the feet of the tsar.

Russia in the reign of Alexander III

Alexander III inherited a state deeply shaken by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. The new tsar immediately set about crushing the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders, Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, were executed.

Russia, instead of a constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, under the rule of his son, Alexander III, received a state with a police regime. The new emperor launched a systematic attack on his father's reforms.
Since 1884, student circles have been banned in the country, since the government saw the main danger of freethinking in the student environment.
The rights of local self-government were revised. The peasants again lost their vote in the election of local deputies. Rich merchants sat in the city duma, and the local nobility sat in the zemstvos.
Judicial reform has also undergone changes. The court has become more closed, the judges are more dependent on the authorities.
Alexander III began to spread Great Russian chauvinism. The favorite thesis of the emperor was proclaimed - “Russia for the Russians”. By 1891, pogroms of Jews began with the connivance of the authorities.

Alexander III dreamed of the revival of the absolute monarchy and the advent of the era of reaction. The reign of this king proceeded without wars and international complications. This made it possible to accelerate the development of foreign and domestic trade, cities grew, factories and factories were built. At the end of the 19th century, the length of roads in Russia increased. The construction of the Siberian Railway was begun in order to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific coast.

Rice. 2. Construction of the Siberian Railway in the second half of the XIX century.

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect various spheres of Russian culture in the second 19th century.

Literature . New views on the life of the Russian population have become widespread in the literature. The society of writers, playwrights and poets was divided into two currents - the so-called Slavophiles and Westerners. A. S. Khomyakov and K. S. Aksakov considered themselves Slavophiles. The Slavophiles believed that Russia had its own special path and there was and will not be any Western influence on Russian culture. Westerners, to whom Chaadaev P. Ya., I. S. Turgenev, historian S. M. Solovyov considered themselves, argued that Russia, on the contrary, should follow the Western path of development. Despite the differences in views, both Westerners and Slavophiles were equally worried about the future fate of the Russian people and the state structure of the country. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Russian literature flourished. F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy write their best works.
Architecture . In architecture in the second half of the 19th century, ecletism began to prevail - a mixture of different styles and trends. This affected the construction of new stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings, etc. Also, the design of certain forms in the architecture of a more classical genre was developed. A.I. Shtakenshneider was a well-known architect in this direction, with the help of which the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg was designed. St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg from 1818 to 1858. This project was designed by Auguste Montferrand.

Rice. 3. St. Isaac's Cathedral. St. Petersburg.

Painting . The artists, inspired by new trends, did not want to work under the close tutelage of the Academy, which was stuck in classicism and was cut off from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V. G. Perov focused his attention on various aspects of the life of society, sharply criticizing the remnants of the serf system. In the 60s, the work of the portrait painter Kramskoy flourished, V. A. Tropinin left us a lifetime portrait of A. S. Pushkin. The works of P. A. Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of academicism either. His works “Courtship of a Major” or “Breakfast of an Aristocrat” ridiculed the stupid complacency of officials and the remnants of the serf system.

In 1852, the Hermitage was opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from all over the world were collected.

What have we learned?

From the article briefly described, you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, the counter-reforms of Alexander III, as well as the flowering of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.

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The 19th century for Russian literature is rightfully called golden. He gave us a lot of talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and become a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century was replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.

In the 1940s, a "natural school" appeared - which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the "sitters" was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.

Since the second half of the 19th century, realism has been called critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two directions are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, shows the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature, they reflect the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic-serf system, the truth of life makes the works of that time popular.

Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century has significant differences from Western European. Many writers of that time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift towards revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular in Russia and abroad were novels and stories of the period of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws with which its development takes place. The heroes in the works talk about the imperfection of society, about conscience and justice.

One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works, he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and children”, “on the eve”, etc.)

A great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth was made by Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?

In the works of I. A. Goncharov, the morals of officials and landowners are shown.

Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility of the human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader, make him show sympathy for the “humiliated and offended”.

Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works brings to clean water officials and embezzlers, bribe takers and hypocrites who rob the people.

L. N. Tolstoy in his work showed the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.

The experience of A.P. Chekhov for the fate of Russian society was reflected in his works, giving the writer, whose talent makes one admire to this day.

The literature of the late 19th century has a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also enter the struggle for their ideals. The mood of the society of that time is also reflected in painting, introducing into the minds of people the idea of equality and good for the whole society.

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Venus is the second planet in solar system. What are its features and why is it considered poisonous? All questions will have their answers.

ESSAY

on the course "History of Russia"

on the topic: "Russia in the second half of the XIX century"

1. Domestic politics Russia in the second halfXIXin.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II, a secret committee on the peasant question began to work, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory allocation of land to the peasants. Then such committees were created for the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landlords and peasants were taken into account), a reform was developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For various regions, the maximum and minimum values of the allotment transferred to the peasant were determined.

On February 19, 1861, the emperor signed a number of laws. Here was the Manifesto and the Regulations on granting freedom to the peasants, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc. The abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, the landlord peasants were released, then the specific and assigned to the factories. The peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while allotments were allotted, the peasants in the position of “temporarily liable” carried duties in favor of the landowners, who, in fact, did not differ from the former serfs. The plots handed over to the peasants were, on average, 1/5 less than those that they cultivated before. Redemption agreements were concluded on these lands, after which the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

The use of land, relationships with the authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of the reforms, serfdom, that “obvious and tangible evil for everyone,” which in Europe was directly called “Russian slavery,” was abolished. However, the land problem was not resolved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landlords a fifth of their allotments.

Under Alexander II, in addition to land reform and the abolition of serfdom, a number of reforms were also carried out.

The principle of the zemstvo reform carried out in 1864 consisted in electivity and lack of estates. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine, zemstvos were established as local governments. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were held on the basis of property, age, educational and a number of other qualifications. The city reform carried out in 1870 was close in character to the Zemstvo reform. In large cities, city dumas were established on the basis of all-class elections.

New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, the principle of the irremovability of judges was affirmed. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and world. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin as Minister of War begins the reorganization of the command and control of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, directly subordinate to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military-judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible conscription system was introduced. Recruitment sets were canceled, the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription.

In 1860, the State Bank was established, the farming 2 system was abolished, which was replaced by excises (1863). Since 1862, the Minister of Finance has become the only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenditures; the budget was made public. An attempt was made to carry out a monetary reform (free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at a fixed rate).

Regulations on elementary public schools” dated June 14, 1864, abolished the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private individuals were allowed to open and maintain elementary schools under the control of county and provincial school councils and inspectors. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions, but introduced tuition fees. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. The University Charter (1863) granted the universities broad autonomy, and introduced the election of rectors and professors. In May 1862, the censorship reform began, "provisional rules" were introduced, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administrative reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep pace with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The variety and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations appeared, professing extremist, sectarian principles. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was assassinated. New Emperor Alexander III. proclaimed a course called "counter-reforms" in historical-materialist literature, and "adjustment of reforms" in liberal-historical literature. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local landowning nobles. The clerks and small merchants, other poor sections of the city, lost their suffrage. Has undergone a change judicial reform. In the new regulation on the zemstvos of 1890, the representation of estates and nobility was strengthened. In 1882-1884. many publications were closed, the autonomy of universities was abolished. primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

In these events, the idea of “official nationality” from the time of Nicholas I was manifested - the slogan “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility” was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. The new official ideologists of K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Grazhdanin) omitted the word "people" from the old formula "Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people" as "dangerous"; they preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the nobility traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were supported by the economic support of the landowners.

2. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

After the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, a new balance of power developed, and political primacy in Europe passed to France. Russia as a Great Power has lost its influence on international affairs and found itself isolated. The interests of economic development, as well as considerations of strategic security, demanded, first of all, the elimination of restrictions on military navigation on the Black Sea, provided for by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856. Russia's diplomatic efforts were aimed at separating the participants in the Paris Peace - France, England, Austria.

In the late 50s - early 60s. there was a rapprochement with France, which intended to seize territories on the Apennine Peninsula, using the Italian liberation movement against Austria. But relations with France deteriorated as a result of Russia's brutal suppression of the Polish uprising. In the 60s. strengthened relations between Russia and the United States; pursuing its own interests, the autocracy supported the republican government of A. Lincoln in the civil war. At the same time, an agreement was reached with Prussia on its support for Russia's demands for the abolition of the Treaty of Paris, in return, the tsarist government promised not to interfere with the creation of the North German Union led by Prussia.

In 1870, France suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. In October 1870, Russia announced its refusal to comply with the humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris. In 1871, the Russian Declaration was adopted and legalized at the London Conference. The strategic task of foreign policy was solved not by war, but by diplomatic means. As a result, Russia gained the opportunity to more actively influence international affairs, and above all, in the Balkans.

In the "near abroad" the conquest and annexation of new territories continued. Now, in the 19th century, the desire to expand the range was determined primarily by motives of a socio-political nature. Russia actively participated in big politics, sought to neutralize the influence of England in Central Asia, Turkey - in the Caucasus. In the 60s. took place in the USA Civil War, the import of American cotton was difficult. Its natural substitute was "at hand", in Central Asia. And, finally, the formed imperial traditions were pushing for the seizure of territories.

In 1858 and 1860 China was forced to cede lands along the left bank of the Amur and the Ussuri Territory. In 1859, after a half-century war, the highlanders of the Caucasus were finally "pacified", their military and spiritual leader, Imam Shamil, was taken prisoner in the high-mountainous village of Gunib. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was completed.

Russian Emperor sought to ensure that the rulers of the states of Central Asia recognized his supreme power, and achieved this: in 1868 the Khiva Khanate, and in 1873 the Emirate of Bukhara recognized vassal dependence on Russia. The Muslims of the Kokand Khanate declared a “holy war”, “ghazavat” to Russia, but were defeated; in 1876 Kokand was annexed to Russia. In the early 80s. Russian troops defeated the nomadic Turkmen tribes and came close to the borders of Afghanistan.

In 1875-1876. uprisings against Turkey swept the entire Balkan Peninsula, the Slavs were waiting for Russia's help.

On April 24, 1877, the tsar signed the Manifesto declaring war on Turkey. A plan for a fleeting campaign was developed. On July 7, the troops crossed the Danube, reached the Balkans, captured the Shipka Pass, but were detained near Plevna. Plevna fell only on November 28, 1877; in winter conditions, the Russian army crossed the Balkans, Sofia was taken on January 4, 1878, and Adrianople on January 8. The Port requested peace, which was concluded on February 19, 1878 at San Stefano. Under the Treaty of San Stefano, Turkey lost almost all of its European possessions; a new independent state appeared on the map of Europe - Bulgaria.

The Western powers refused to recognize the Treaty of San Stefano. In June 1878, the Congress of Berlin opened, which adopted decisions that were much less beneficial for Russia and the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In Russia, this was met as an insult to national dignity, a storm of indignation arose, including against the government. Public opinion was still in captivity of the "all at once" formula. The war, which ended in victory, turned into a diplomatic defeat, economic disorder, and an aggravation of the internal political situation.

In the first years after the war, there was a "rebalancing" of the interests of the great powers. Germany was inclined towards an alliance with Austria-Hungary, which was concluded in 1879, and in 1882 supplemented by a "tripartite alliance" with Italy. Under these conditions, a natural rapprochement between Russia and France took place, which ended in 1892 with the conclusion of a secret alliance, supplemented by a military convention. For the first time in world history, an economic and military-political confrontation between stable groups of great powers began.

On the Far East in exchange for the Kuril Islands, Japan acquired the southern part of Sakhalin Island. In 1867, Alaska was sold to the United States for $7 million. According to the historian

S.G. Pushkarev, many Americans believed that she was not even worth it.

The Russian Empire, “one and indivisible”, stretched “from the Finnish cold rocks to the fiery Taurida”, from the Vistula to the Pacific Ocean and occupied a sixth of the earth.

3. Economic and social development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

The economy of post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. Acreage and agricultural production increased, but agricultural productivity remained low. Yields and food consumption (except for bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time, in the 1980s compared to the 50s. the average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle-peasant farms were ruined, and the number of poor peasants grew. On the other hand, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But quite unexpectedly for them, the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade, towards all new forms of activity: towards the kulak, the merchant, the buyer - towards the successful entrepreneur, intensified in the country.

The reforms laid the foundation new system loan. For 1866-1875. 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866, the largest European banks began to actively participate in their work.

In Russia, large-scale industry was created and developed as a state industry. The main concern of the government after the failures of the Crimean War were enterprises that produced military equipment. The military budget of Russia in general terms was inferior to the English, French, German, but in the Russian budget it had more significant weight. Particular attention was paid to the development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

As a result of state regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. The railroads ensured the expansion of the economic market in the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the operational transfer of military units.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state on the basis of the issuance of special orders, so the big bourgeoisie was closely connected with the state. The number of industrial workers rapidly increased, but many workers retained economic and psychological ties with the countryside, they carried a charge of discontent among the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

After the fall of serfdom, Russia quickly turned from an agrarian country into an agrarian-industrial one. Large-scale machine industry developed, new types of industry arose, areas of capitalist industrial and agricultural production took shape, an extensive network of railways was created, a single capitalist market was formed, and important social changes took place in the country. The disintegration of the peasantry was an important factor in the formation of the capitalist market and the development of capitalism as a whole. The poor peasantry created a labor market for both entrepreneurial agriculture and large-scale capitalist industry. The prosperous elite, however, showed ever greater demand for agricultural machinery, fertilizers, etc. The accumulated capital was invested by the rural elite in industrial enterprise.

Thus, for all its progressiveness, agrarian reforms further aggravated social contradictions, which by the beginning of the 20th century resulted in a revolutionary situation.

4. Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

The year 1861 was characterized by a sharp aggravation of the situation in the countryside. The peasants, to whom the Regulations were announced on February 19, 1861, did not believe that this was the true royal law, demanding land. In some cases (as, for example, in the village of Bezdna), it came to meetings of ten thousand people, ending with the use of troops and hundreds of people killed. A.I. Herzen, who initially welcomed February 19 with the title of "Liberator" for Alexander II, changed his mind after these executions and declared that "the old serfdom was replaced by a new one." In public life as a whole, there has been a significant emancipation of the consciousness of broad circles of the population.

Three currents formed in the public consciousness: radical, liberal and conservative. The conservatives advocated the inviolability of the autocracy. Radicals - for his overthrow. Liberals tried to achieve greater civil freedom in society, but did not seek change political system.

The liberal movement of the late 50's - early 60's. was the widest and had many different shades. But, one way or another, the liberals advocated the establishment of constitutional forms of government by peaceful means, for political and civil freedoms and the enlightenment of the people. Being supporters of legal forms, the liberals acted through the press and the Zemstvo.

The democratization of society affected the composition of the participants in the social movement. If in the first half of the 19th century representatives of the nobility prevailed among the opposition figures (from the Decembrists to Herzen), then in the 60s people of various “ranks” (that is, social groups) began to take an active part in public life. This allowed Soviet researchers, following Lenin, to talk about the transition from 1861 from the nobility to the raznochinsk stage of the liberation movement.

On the wave of a democratic upsurge across the country, a number of underground circles arose, which at the end of 1861 united in the organization "Land and Freedom". The leadership of the organization was Alexander and Nikolai Serno-Solovyevich, Nikolai Obruchev, Alexander Sleptsov, Chernyshevsky took an active part in its affairs, Ogaryov and Herzen helped from London. The organization united up to 400 members of circles in central Russia and Poland.

The name of the organization reflected the main, in the opinion of its participants, the demands of the people and was associated with the program: the return of cuts, the forced purchase of landowners' land by the state, the creation of elected local self-government and a central people's representation. The program, as we see, was quite moderate by modern standards, but it was not possible to count on its implementation under the tsarist government. Therefore, the participants of the "Land and Freedom" were preparing for an armed seizure of power. They associated his perspective with the spring of 1863, when, from February 19, 1863, the conclusion of redemption acts was to begin throughout the country. However, in 1862, Nikolai Serno-Solovyevich and Chernyshevsky were arrested; at the same time, the latter was exiled to Siberia on unproven charges, so that he left the political arena. In addition, within the organization itself there were disagreements on ideological issues. As a result, by the spring of 1864, Land and Freedom was liquidated.

Insignificant in the early 1860s, Russia's working population increased significantly over the next two decades. In view of the inhuman conditions of life and work, the working-class movement also grew, which at the end of the 70s became quite common. The number of strikes was measured in dozens a year, and at times there were also large strikes, for the dispersal of which troops were used.

The creation of the South Russian Union of Russian Workers in Odessa dates back to 1875. Uncovered by the police just a few months later, the Union is remarkable in that it was the first workers' organization in Russia. Three years later, in 1878, the Northern Union of Russian Workers appeared in St. Petersburg. Its goal was quite obvious - "the overthrow of the existing political and economic system as extremely unjust." Immediate demands are the introduction of democratic freedoms, the development of labor legislation, and so on. Of particular note is the "establishment of a free people's federation of communities on the basis of Russian customary law." Thus, the unfolding labor movement was based on a populist, peasant ideology.

However, the beginning of the 1880s revealed a crisis in the populist movement, which sought to rely on the peasants in the struggle to change the system. Populism was replaced by Marxism, which had already firmly established itself in Europe by that time. The revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx were based on his economic views, which proclaimed capitalism an advanced stage in the development of society, which, however, was characterized by serious internal contradictions between capitalists and direct producers. Accordingly, Marx predicted that capitalism must be replaced by another social order based on a more equitable distribution, and this must happen precisely with the support of the proletariat. It is natural, therefore, that the development of Marxism in Russia is connected precisely with the proletarian (workers') movement.

The penetration of Marxism into Russia was greatly facilitated by the populists who found themselves in exile in the West: Plekhanov, Zasulich, Axelrod and others. Recognizing the fallacy of their former views, they accepted the ideas of Marx. This change is vividly characterized by the words of Plekhanov: "The historical role of the Russian proletariat is as revolutionary as the role of the muzhik is conservative." The Emancipation of Labor group, formed on the basis of these revolutionaries, began to translate and publish Marx, which contributed to the spread of Marxist circles in Russia.

Thus, the revolutionary movement in Russia entered a new stage at the end of the 19th century.

Literature

1. Dolgy A.M. Russian history. Tutorial. M.: INFRA-M, 2007.

2. History of Russia. Theories of study. Book one, two / Pod. ed. B. V. Lichman. Yekaterinburg: SV-96, 2006. - 304 p.

3. Kozin K.M. The history of homeland. Textbook for universities. M.: AIRO-XXI; St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 2007. - 200 p.

4. Mironov B.A. Social history of Russia. T.1. St. Petersburg, 2006.

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Russian culture in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century. Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century Circle of problems of society in the second half of the 19th century

"Great reforms" of Alexander II

Zemstvo reform of 1864

Judicial reform of 1864

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Revolutionary Populism

The internal policy of the autocracy at the end of the XIX century.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

Culture of the second half of the XIX century.

Conservatives

liberals

Radicals

"Sixties"

"Land and freedom" (1861-1864)

The first secret organizations did not last long

Revolutionary Populists

"Land and freedom" (1876-1879)

"Black redistribution"

"People's Will"

Liberal Populists

Emancipation of Labor Group

Workers' organizations

"Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class"

Legacy of Nicholas I

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

Social movements in the second half of the 19th century

Russia in the reign of Alexander III

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

What have we learned?

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Russian culture in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century. Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century Circle of problems of society in the second half of the 19th century

"Great reforms" of Alexander II

Zemstvo reform of 1864

Judicial reform of 1864

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Revolutionary Populism

The internal policy of the autocracy at the end of the XIX century.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

Culture of the second half of the XIX century.

Conservatives

liberals

Radicals

"Sixties"

"Land and freedom" (1861-1864)

The first secret organizations did not last long

Revolutionary Populists

"Land and freedom" (1876-1879)

"Black redistribution"

"People's Will"

Liberal Populists

Emancipation of Labor Group

Workers' organizations

"Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class"

Legacy of Nicholas I

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

Social movements in the second half of the 19th century

Russia in the reign of Alexander III

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

What have we learned?

Topic quiz

Report Evaluation

Tutoring

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