Famous Russian diplomats. Reference. The art of persuading: how Russian diplomacy was created

Researchers continue to argue about what event became the starting point in the history of Russian diplomacy. Officially, the date of the formation of the Ambassadorial Order - February 10, 1549, was taken as the basis for the establishment of the Day of the Diplomatic Worker.

However, diplomacy as a tool foreign policy originated with the advent of the early feudal Russian state with centers in Kyiv and Veliky Novgorod. The first representative body of the interests of Russia was the embassy in Constantinople, which was opened in 838.

In 839, a Russian embassy was established in the Frankish kingdom. One of the first international legal acts Ancient Russia was the treaty "On Peace and Love" with the Byzantine Empire, according to which Constantinople was obliged to pay tribute to Kyiv.

In the 9th-11th centuries, the East Slavic tribes constantly fought with their neighbors - Byzantium and the nomadic southern peoples (Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy). Of great importance for the development of statehood (and, as a result, diplomacy) was the baptism of Russia in 988. According to legend, Prince Vladimir made a choice in favor of Christianity after a conversation with foreign ambassadors.

• "Grand Duke Vladimir chooses faith" (unknown author, 1822)

In the 11th century, Russia turned into an influential player in the European arena. The practice of dynastic marriages contributed to the expansion of contacts with the Western world. In 1019, Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kyiv married the daughter of the king of Sweden, Ingigerda.

Almost all the children of the Kyiv prince intermarried with European aristocratic houses. was given in marriage to the French king Henry I, Elizabeth - to the Norwegian king Harald the Severe, Anastasia - to the king of Hungary Andras I.

The sons of Yaroslav, at the insistence of their father, also found wives abroad. Izyaslav married the daughter of the Polish king Gertrude, Svyatoslav - the Austrian princess Oda, Vsevolod - the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX.

“Unfortunately, we know very little about the diplomacy of Ancient Russia and the work of the so-called embassies. On the one hand, the foreign policy of Russia was quite active, on the other hand, we don’t know anything about officials whose main duties included interaction with other powers, ”said Vladimir Vinokurov, professor at the Diplomatic Academy of the Russian Foreign Ministry, in an interview with RT.

According to the expert, with the beginning of feudal fragmentation ancient Russian state(second half of the 11th century), the need for diplomacy most likely disappeared. Vinokurov also complained about the lack of data on the diplomatic activities of Russia during the Mongol-Tatar yoke (1238-1480).

“The fundamental condition for the existence of diplomacy is a single and independent state. Fragmented and dependent territories have no common tasks, no sovereign foreign policy, which means there is no need for intensive external contacts and outward defense of interests. Therefore, with the collapse of a united Russia, diplomacy could also disappear, ”explained Vinokurov.

From Duma to Order

The need for diplomatic art, according to Vinokurov, arose in Russia with the formation of a centralized Russian state in the 15th century. Issues of external relations were dealt with directly by the Grand Duke and members of the Boyar Duma.

Historians call Ivan III the most skillful diplomat of that era, who pursued an effective foreign policy. It is with him state emblem Russia became the Byzantine double-headed eagle. This determined the civilizational continuity of the Russian state as an alternative center of power on the Eurasian continent.

However, a professional approach to diplomacy prevailed only during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. On February 10, 1549, he established the Posolsky Prikaz, the executive body responsible for Moscow's foreign relations.

Duma clerk Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty was appointed head of the order. He is considered the first professional diplomat. Viskovatyy negotiated with Livonian Order(conclusion of peace), Denmark (treaty of military alliance) and Sweden (a truce agreement for 20 years).

The personnel of the Ambassadorial Order were clerks and clerks (assistants who performed office work). Structurally, this authority was divided into three territorial administrations (povity). One branch was responsible for relations with Europe, and the other two - with the eastern countries.

“The clerks accepted the letters brought by the ambassadors, conducted preliminary negotiations, attended the receptions of foreign diplomats, checked drafts of response letters, and issued instructions to the ambassadors sent to meet foreign ambassadors. They also headed the embassies, ”writes the former Russian ambassador to Yugoslavia Valery Egoshkin in the article“ A Little About the Russian Diplomatic Service ”.

Permanent diplomatic missions of Russia abroad began to appear in the 30s of the 17th century. The impetus for this was the 30-year war in Europe (1618-1648) and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which laid the foundation for the first ever system of international relations.

Establishment of the College

Russian diplomacy made a real breakthrough during the reign. The era of his reign is associated with the introduction of Western innovations in the socio-political structure. Military victories and economic success contributed to the fact that Russia entered the circle of leading European powers.

In December 1718, the Ambassadorial Order was transformed into the Collegium of Foreign Affairs (KID). On February 24, 1720, the regulations of the new body were approved. The CFA was based on the experience of the state administration system of the Swedish kingdom. Peter I considered the system of orders too clumsy.

The KID consisted of the Presence (governing body) and the Chancellery (executive institution). The board was headed by the president, who was awarded the title of chancellor. At the same time, the President of the CFA did not have the right to make decisions without the approval of the members of the Presence, assessors (assessors) and actual privy councillors.

Under the control of the KID were embassies and other diplomatic missions of Russia abroad. The Board performed a wide range of functions: ensuring the confidentiality of the emperor's correspondence, preparing messages (letters, rescripts, resolutions, declarations) for diplomatic missions and foreign states, the issuance of foreign passports and the solution of questions of the stay of foreign nationals. In addition to external relations, the KID exercised control over nomadic and newly annexed peoples.

The office was divided into two departments. The first was directly involved in foreign relations, the second - financial issues and economic support for the activities of diplomatic institutions, and also interacted with the peoples of Russia, including the Ural Cossacks and Little Russia (part of modern Ukraine).

“The appearance of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs was caused by an urgent need. By the end of the Petrine era, Russia had become a mighty empire, a full-fledged participant in European politics. Of course, such a development of events required the emergence of a modern diplomatic institution, where only specialists work,” Vinokurov said.

The “professionalization” of the diplomatic service was facilitated by the adoption by Peter I of the “Table of Ranks” (February 4, 1722). Having established 14 military and civil ranks, the autocrat created a career ladder for diplomatic workers. Each KID official was obliged to start his service from the lowest rank.

“The contribution of Peter I to the development of the diplomatic service was, without a doubt, enormous. On the one hand, he sometimes too zealously copied Western institutions, on the other hand, it was only under him that a school of professional diplomats arose in Russia. Russia in the field of diplomacy lagged behind Europe by 30 years. Peter significantly reduced this gigantic gap, ”explained Vinokurov.

The heyday of Russian diplomacy of the 18th century falls on the period of government, which increased Russia's influence in the world. In the European theater, diplomats were actively negotiating various coalition agreements. In the south, they established a system for managing the annexed territories.

• Presentation of a letter to Empress Catherine II (Ivan Miodushevsky, 1861)

One of the most significant achievements of the policy of Catherine II was the weakening Ottoman Empire Petersburg's main geopolitical rival. According to experts from the Russian Foreign Ministry, a major success of Russian diplomacy was the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty (1774) with Turkey, which marked the beginning of the annexation of Crimea.

The appearance of the ministry

The most important milestone in the history of Russian diplomacy is the creation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which became the prototype of the modern diplomatic department.

The manifesto establishing the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was signed on September 20, 1802. However, the process of forming a new executive body dragged on for 30 years - the CFA was abolished only in 1832.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs had a more ramified structure than the Collegium. Several new departments and dozens of subdivisions appeared within the ministry. The central apparatus included the Chancellery, the Department of Internal Relations, the Asian Department and the Department of Personnel and Economic Affairs, the Archival Service, the Commission for the Publication of State Letters and Treaties.

In 1839, the staff of the central apparatus of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs consisted of 535 people. However, in 1868, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire, Alexander Gorchakov, carried out a reform, reducing the staff in St. Petersburg to 134 officials. Subsequently, the staffing of the ministry began to grow again.

• Portrait of His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov, Foreign Minister of the Russian Empire (Nikolai Bogatsky, 1873)

Russian diplomatic missions abroad were divided into embassies (large European states), residencies (representations in small countries and lands dependent on St. Petersburg), general consulates, consulates, vice-consulates and consular agencies.

In the 19th century, there was a rapid growth in the number of Russian diplomatic missions. In 1758, there were only 11 permanent foreign missions in the structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in 1868 their number increased to 102. In 1897, there were 147 Russian diplomatic missions abroad, in 1903 - 173, and in 1913 - over 200.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire tried to comply with the latest trends. For example, during the reform of the department, which began in the mid-1900s, the Press Department was established - an analogue of the modern Department of Information and Press (press service). The department monitored the foreign press and provided " public opinion explanations regarding the activities of the ministry”.

After the revolution, the Bolsheviks, on the basis of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, created the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR (NKID). The new body was headed by professional diplomat Georgy Chicherin, who in the 1920s made a huge contribution to the international recognition of the young socialist republic.

In 1946, the NKID was transformed into the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR. In 1953, Soviet diplomats moved from the apartment building of the First Russian Insurance Company on Bolshaya Lubyanka to the Stalinist skyscraper on Smolenskaya-Sennaya Square.

• View from the Borodino Bridge to Smolenskaya Square and the building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, 1995
• RIA News
• Runes

basis diplomatic personnel The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has always been made up of bright representatives of the intellectual and creative elite. In particular, the classics of Russian literature were in the diplomatic service: Alexander Sergeevich Griboedov (head of the embassy in Tehran), Konstantin Nikolayevich Batyushkov (employee of the diplomatic mission in Italy), Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev (freelance attache in Munich), Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy (employee of the Russian mission to the German Sejm).

“I attribute the abundance of talented and brilliant personnel in the Foreign Ministry to the fact that a diplomat must be a versatile person. His weapons are intelligence, ingenuity, the ability to find an approach to a person, to feel his strengths and weaknesses. Mediocrity, even if well educated, will not achieve success in the field of diplomacy,” Vinokurov concluded.

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Priority character for objective reasons bear for Russia ties with the United States of America, which for the foreseeable future will remain the most powerful world power in economic and technological terms. International security and the effectiveness of the efforts of the world community in the fight against new common threats depend on the situation in Russian-American relations. There are six Russian diplomatic missions on the territory, including the Russian mission to the UN.

Of strategic importance for Russia are relations with the countries of the Asia-Pacific Region (APR), which have become locomotives of the world economy. Ties with the countries of the Asia-Pacific region are especially important for the recovery of the economy of Russia's eastern regions. Integration processes are gaining momentum in the Asia-Pacific region. Russia is actively strengthening ties with and other countries, participating in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, developing partnerships with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other regional organizations. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization, which includes Russia, China and the states of Central Asia, has become a factor of stability in Asia.

Russia has a wide network of missions throughout Asia, including four in each of such large states as India, China,. Maintaining ties both with and with the Palestinian National Autonomy, Russia is making active efforts to unblock the Middle East conflict and is a member of the international "quartet" of mediators.
It is in the interests of Russia to restore and expand ties with the countries of Africa and Latin America that followed a period of their definite weakening in the 1990s. These ties, in particular, are important for the implementation of a number of the country's economic tasks and Russia's participation in solving key international problems. A strong impetus to the development of relations with the countries of Africa south of the Sahara was given by the first ever visit to this region of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin in 2006. Russia's interaction with many African and Latin American countries is based on long traditions and closeness of foreign policy views.

Strengthening the representation of Russia and expanding its geography is dictated by the urgent needs of the country and the need to protect the interests of Russian citizens. Broad international relations create favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the strengthening of national security.

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February 10 is the professional holiday of Russian diplomats. On this day in 1549, the Ambassadorial order was first mentioned in written sources - the first government agency in Russia, whose direct functions included foreign relations. Diplomatic Worker's Day has been celebrated since 2003. Decree establishing a new professional holiday signed by Russian President Vladimir Putin on October 31, 2002.

The structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation includes the central office; foreign institutions (diplomatic missions: embassies and consulates), territorial bodies and various subordinate organizations. For almost 12 years, the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry has been Sergei Viktorovich Lavrov, who gained experience as Russia's permanent representative to the UN.

On the day of a diplomatic worker, as a rule, there are many laudatory speeches. Domestic diplomacy, of course, has something to praise. However, the structures of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation do not always successfully fulfill their obligations to protect the interests of our country and citizens of the Russian Federation. Russian Planet decided to take stock of the activities of Russian diplomacy, which turns 25 in 2016.

Achievements and failures

Over the past quarter of a century, Russian diplomacy has finally found a face. Moscow got rid of militant rhetoric cold war”and at the same time stopped building a foreign policy in the wake of the United States. Russia has declared itself as an influential and independent player on the world stage. Moscow seeks to establish equal relations with partners and constantly emphasizes a friendly and peaceful attitude, while demanding a respectful attitude towards its interests. The symbolic turn of Yevgeny Primakov's plane over the Atlantic in 1999 predetermined the formation of Moscow's new policy on the entire foreign policy front.

In the 2000s, Russia made every effort to protect Serbia and did not bend to the West in the Kosovo issue. In 2013, our country was able to prevent the American invasion of Syria by concluding an agreement on the elimination of chemical weapons in the Arab Republic. Now the diplomatic mission of the Russian Federation in the Syrian direction is supported by the successful work of the Russian Aerospace Forces. But the main achievement of our country is naturally the return of Crimea. Now it becomes clear that work in this direction was carried out long before February-March 2014.

Of course, in the history of modern Russian diplomacy there have been many blunders. Russia failed to prevent two coups d'état in strategically important Ukraine (2004, 2014). The war in Donbass and the fragile Minsk peace are largely the consequences of the quality of work of the Russian Embassy in Kyiv, headed by Mikhail Zurabov.

In addition, Russian diplomacy made mistakes in the North African and Middle East region. In 2011, our country did not block the UN Security Council resolution on the introduction of a no-fly zone in Libya. Humane at first glance, the document provided carte blanche for the Western and Arab Air Force to bombard the positions of troops loyal to Muammar Gaddafi. Also, Russia did not behave very competently on the issue of the sanctions regime against Iran.

Endless work

In the conditions of confrontation with the West and the need to combat the terrorist threat, Russian diplomacy faces extremely difficult, and perhaps practically impossible, tasks. As never before, our diplomats are required to have ingenuity, flair, the ability to foresee the development of the situation, a high level of professionalism, the ability to work with modern technologies, dedication to their work and colossal performance.

“In my opinion, Russia has adopted the right foreign policy strategy. We are not going to fight with anyone, we demonstrate our readiness to be friends and defend national interests. However, it is worth recognizing that so far we are reaping very little of the fruits of such a policy. Yes, we are perceived as a serious player, but we cannot fully defend our national interests, ”says I. about. Head of the Department of International Relations and Foreign Regional Studies of the Volgograd State University Timur Nelin.

“I mean that our diplomatic corps, although trying, has not yet coped with the key task of explaining to the West that Russia does not pose a threat to it. We see how serious the leaders of Western countries are about the issue of sanctions and "containment" of Russia. I believe that they sincerely believe that the policy pursued by Moscow harms their interests. Russia was branded as an "aggressor" and "occupier". To convince the West of the opposite, of course, is very difficult. But in this field, our diplomats need to work as actively as possible,” the interlocutor of the Republic of Poland believes.

Nelin drew attention to the issue of the effectiveness of the work of Russian diplomatic missions abroad. “We have heard a lot of complaints in the past. The embassies did not have time to keep track of the course of political changes in the host country, and the consulates were cool about the requests of Russian citizens and businessmen. As far as I can tell, the situation has not changed radically since then,” Nelin stated.

In his opinion, in the structures of the Russian Foreign Ministry, as in other state departments of our country, nepotism prevails, which negatively affects the quality of work of diplomats. “Smolenskaya Square may send perfectly correct directives, but diplomats on the ground may not carry them out properly. It seems to me that some diplomats are sure that if problems arise, they will be “covered up,” Nelin explained.

The expert stated that the most "tasty" positions are almost always occupied by "their own people", especially in diplomatic missions in developed countries. “This does not mean that there are mediocrity working there. Russia's interests are protected by professionals. Another thing is that due to the clan system, the level of responsibility of diplomats naturally decreases,” the interlocutor of the Republic of Poland noted.

Nelin connects his hopes for rectifying the situation with the figure of Sergei Lavrov, who, in his opinion, has long been fighting the problem of the incompetence of diplomatic personnel.

Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov. Photo: Sergey Savostyanov / TASS

How to beat the West?

Perhaps the most important component of professional and public diplomacy now is the ability to work with information and use tools " soft power". The successful activity of Russia Today, Sputnik and pro-Russian media abroad suggests that a positive start to improve the image of Russia has already been created. Moscow began to work with forces sympathetic to the Russian Federation, providing them with a platform for expressing their opinion.

The time when Russia mediocrely lost information wars (Maidan 2004, the war in August 2008) is a thing of the past. “I would like to note that the information component of the work of our Foreign Ministry has improved significantly. Now we have a toolkit that allows us to respond as quickly as possible to rapidly changing events. In particular, the Russian Foreign Ministry has a centralized system for monitoring, collecting and processing information,” says Dmitry Abzalov, President of the Center for Strategic Communications.

“However, the work of the information component needs to be constantly improved and new methods adopted. If we talk about social networks separately, then I would recommend working more actively with reference groups (diasporas and communities). It is necessary to form and develop in foreign countries“support groups,” the expert points out.

Abzalov recommends using the opportunities of economic diplomacy more often. “For example, the Prime Minister of Bavaria visited Russia last week. The formal agenda was purely economic. However, in reality, the visit of Horst Seehofer acquired a distinct political coloring, and friendly to Russia. Given the current relations with Germany, such a maneuver can be unequivocally interpreted as a diplomatic success,” Abzalov said.

As a key approach to the work of domestic diplomacy, the interlocutor of the Republic of Poland singled out a leading method of responding to events. “It is necessary to move away from the catch-up principle, when Russian diplomats react after the fact. For example, Western diplomacy is trying to generate various news stories and prepare responses to them in advance. Thus, the colleagues of the Russians themselves create the conflict, and then give it an exhaustive assessment, drawing conclusions that denigrate our country,” says Abzalov.

“A striking example of the application of the leading method in practice is the recent report of the coroner in the Litvinenko case. A few days before this event, the Western media were full of provocative anti-Russian headlines. There was nothing special in the coroner's report. But a negative information picture for Moscow has already been created. A similar situation for London was the reason for the discussion about the tightening of the sanctions regime in relation to the Russian Federation. At the same time, people were convinced that Litvinenko, who at that time was a citizen of the Kingdom, was eliminated almost personally by the President of the Russian Federation. Let's remember at least the story about "Putin's tea", - said the interlocutor of the Republic of Poland.

Dmitry Abzalov considers the method of playing ahead of the curve the most progressive in modern diplomacy. Manipulations with the media and information campaigns beneficial to Moscow require better analytical work and understanding of the work of mechanisms to ensure information security. Russian diplomacy needs to actively master latest methods work in the media field. In the face of confrontation with the West, it is extremely important for Moscow to form a positive attitude towards its military and political initiatives among the world community.

On February 20, one of the most prominent diplomats died suddenly in New York at the age of 64. modern Russia, Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation to the UN Vitaly Churkin. This loss was a real shock to the country and once again reminded us all of the importance of the profession of a diplomat, of their enormous contribution to international relationships. "Typical Moscow" invites readers to remember people whose names are inextricably linked with Russian diplomacy, and whose death was a real shock to the country.

Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov (1795 - 1829)

We all know Griboyedov as a great playwright and composer, but Alexander Sergeevich remained a professional diplomat until the end of his life. A nobleman, a polyglot, an outstanding student, a successful duellist and freemason, Griboyedov nevertheless became famous for his art, although he did not stop his diplomatic service from the moment he graduated from Moscow University. It seems that it was she who formed a man of incredible intelligence from Griboedov, who gave not only Russia, but the whole world "Woe from Wit" and a dozen magnificent piano works, which rightfully replenished the rich fund of Russian classical music.

Despite such a contribution to Russian art, Griboyedov always remained a diplomat and passed away as a diplomat. His death came tragically, in Tehran, where Alexander Sergeevich served as the ambassador of the Russian Empire in Persia, when a mob of angry religious fanatics defeated the embassy and killed everyone who was there, with the exception of the embassy secretary.

The life and death of Griboyedov became significant for Russia. His exclusivity became the limit of the efforts of diplomats of the future, and his death seriously raised the question of the security of Russian diplomatic missions, as well as the danger and importance of the diplomatic service.

Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798 - 1883)

A contemporary of the Griboyedov we have mentioned, Alexander Gorchakov, was undoubtedly one of the greatest diplomats of all Russian history. He headed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire for 25 years and led foreign policy countries in times of great achievements: from European wars to the powerful development of the then system of international relations.

A difficult mission fell to Gorchakov's lot - to make sure that Russia minimizes its losses incurred during the disastrous Crimean War. Alexander Mikhailovich managed not only to eventually achieve a revision of the Paris Treaty, which ended the Crimean War in 1856, but also to put forward Russian empire among the leading diplomatic states of Europe.

The tandem of Gorchakov and Emperor Alexander II during the years of the latter's reign made it possible to solve many problems of the state's foreign policy and gradually bring Russia to the forefront of international relations.

Andrei Andreevich Gromyko (1909 - 1989)

Andrei Andreevich Gromyko is deservedly the most respected diplomat in Soviet, if not the entire history of Russia. And this is not just because this diplomat set an absolute record for the duration of his tenure Russian minister foreign affairs - 28 years. Moreover, Gromyko had the difficult task of preventing the Third World War, on the threshold of which the world stood in the Cold War era.

Gromyko's merit can be credited not only with the preservation of peace without serious clashes between the two systems - Western and communist - but also with his constant initiative towards strengthening peace. Gromyko proposed many international treaties on disarmament, the reduction and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, the ban on tests of weapons of mass destruction, and much more. Most of the documents were accepted by the international community and are still being implemented.

Nevertheless, Gromyko did not forget about the interests of his own state and conducted a dialogue with the main opponents on the world stage (primarily the United States) from a strong position, which made it possible to speak of him as a tough and pragmatic diplomat who knows his business and defends the ideals of the state. for whose benefit he worked.

Evgeny Maksimovich Primakov (1929 - 2015)

Despite the fact that Primakov's professional diplomatic career as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation was limited to only two years, he will forever remain among the most prominent Russian foreign policy figures. Mainly, his main merit as head of the Foreign Ministry was that under him Russian diplomacy regained the strength and dignity lost after the collapse of the USSR. In addition, Primakov set a new tone for the entire Russian diplomacy, which provoked a new round of youth interest in a diplomatic career.

It was thanks to Yevgeny Maksimovich that Russia, as they say now, began to “turn to the East”, that is, it stopped focusing purely on Europe, and improved relations with China, India and other large developing states.

Russia has always been famous for its diplomacy, and this is a fact that cannot be challenged by any arguments. And when people who have given themselves to serving the foreign policy interests of their country die, their death is a tragedy and mourning for the entire nation. Therefore, we must always remember our heroes and honor their memory as people who partly help us not to know what war is. After all, one of the main goals of diplomacy is to prevent war and maintain peace.

(All images taken from Wikimedia)