How many feudal centers did the Old Russian state break up into. Causes of the collapse of the Old Russian state. General and special in the development of Russian lands. Consequences of political fragmentation
History of Russia from ancient times to late XVII century Milov Leonid Vasilievich
§ 4. The collapse of the Old Russian state
The Old Russian state, as it developed under Vladimir, did not last long. By the middle of the XI century. began its gradual disintegration into a number of independent principalities.
In the ancient Russian society of the era early medieval absent general concept"state". In the public mind, of course, there was an idea of the "Russian Land" as a special political entity, but such a "state" merged inseparably with the physical personality of the bearer of supreme power - the prince, who was essentially a monarch. The monarch was for the people of that time the real embodiment of the state. Such an idea, generally characteristic of the societies of the early Middle Ages, was especially strong in Ancient Russia, where the prince-ruler acted as the organizer and distributor of material goods produced by society. The monarch disposed of the state, as the father of the family manages his household. And just as a father divides his household between his sons, so the prince of Kyiv divided the territory of the Old Russian state between his sons. So did, for example, the father of Vladimir, Svyatoslav, who divided his lands among his three sons. However, not only in Ancient Russia, but also in a number of other states of the early Middle Ages, such orders did not initially come into force and the most powerful of the heirs usually seized the full power (in the specific case with the heirs of Svyatoslav, Vladimir). It is possible that at that stage of the formation of the state, economic self-sufficiency could only be provided that Kyiv had unified control of all the main routes of transcontinental trade: the Baltic - the Near and Middle East, the Baltic - the Black Sea. Therefore, the princely squad, on which the fate of the Old Russian state ultimately depended, advocated the strong and sole power of the Kyiv prince. From the middle of the XI century. developments took a different direction.
Thanks to the reports of ancient Russian chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries, who paid great attention to the political fate of the Old Russian state, we have a good idea of the external side of the events that took place.
Co-rulers-Yaroslavichi. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, a rather complex political structure developed. The main heirs of the prince were his three eldest sons - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Between them were divided the main centers of the historical core of the state - "Russian land" in the narrow sense of the word: Izyaslav received Kyiv, Svyatoslav - Chernigov, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl. A number of other lands also passed under their rule: Izyaslav received Novgorod, Vsevolod - the Rostov volost. Although the chronicles say that Yaroslav made his eldest son Izyaslav the head of the princely family - "in his father's place", in the 50-60s. the three elder Yaroslavichs act as equal rulers, jointly managing the "Russian Land". Together, at congresses, they adopted laws that were to be in force throughout the entire territory of the Old Russian state, and together they undertook campaigns against their neighbors. Other members of the princely family - the younger sons of Yaroslav and his grandchildren, sat in the lands as governors of older brothers, who moved them at their discretion. So, in 1057, when Vyacheslav Yaroslavich, who was sitting in Smolensk, died, the elder brothers imprisoned his brother Igor in Smolensk, "bringing" him out of Vladimir Volynsky. The Yaroslavichi jointly achieved some success: they defeated the bonds - “torks”, who replaced the Pechenegs in the Eastern European steppes, managed to conquer the Polotsk land, which had been deposited from the Old Russian state under Yaroslav under the rule of the descendants of another son of Vladimir - Izyaslav.
Fight between members of the princely family. However, the current situation caused dissatisfaction among the younger members of the clan, deprived of power. The fortress of Tmutarakan increasingly became a refuge for the dissatisfied. Taman Peninsula. To this were added conflicts between older brothers: in 1073 Svyatoslav and Vsevolod drove Izyaslav from the Kyiv table and divided the territory of the Old Russian state in a new way. The number of dissatisfied and offended grew, but what mattered was that they began to receive serious support from the population. Korda in 1078, a number of younger members of the princely family rebelled, they managed to occupy one of the main centers of the Old Russian state - Chernigov. The population of the “city”, even in the absence of their new princes, refused to open the gates to the troops of the Kyiv ruler. In the battle with the rebels on Nezhatina Field on October 3, 1078, Izyaslav Yaroslavich died, who by that time had managed to return to the Kyiv table.
After the death of Izyaslav and Svyatoslav, who died in 1076, Vsevolod Yaroslavich took the throne of Kyiv, concentrating under his direct authority most of the lands that were part of the Old Russian state. The political unity of the state was thus preserved, but a series of rebellions by his nephews stretched through the entire reign of Vsevolod, seeking princely tables for themselves or seeking to weaken their dependence on Kyiv, sometimes turning to the neighbors of Russia for help. old prince repeatedly sent troops against them, led by his son Vladimir Monomakh, but in the end was forced to make concessions to his nephews. “This same one,” the chronicler wrote about him, “pacifying them, distributing power to them.” The Kyiv prince was forced to make concessions, as the performances of the younger members of the family met with the support of the local population. However, the nephews, even having received princely tables, remained the deputies of their uncle, who could select these tables at his own discretion.
A new, even more serious crisis of traditional political structures erupted in the early 1990s. XI century, when, after the death in 1093 of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Oleg, the son of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, demanded the return of the legacy of his father, Chernigov, and turned for help to the nomadic Polovtsy, who forced the Torks out of the Eastern European steppes. In 1094, Oleg came with the "Polovtsian land" to Chernigov, where, after the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh was sitting. After an 8-day siege, Vladimir and his retinue were forced to leave the city. As he later recalled, when he and his family and retinue rode through the Polovtsian regiments, the Polovtsy "licked themselves at us like Voltsi standing." Having established himself in Chernigov with the help of the Polovtsians, Oleg refused to participate, along with other princes, in repelling the Polovtsian raids. Thus, favorable conditions were created for the Polovtsian invasions, which aggravated the disasters of the internecine war. In the Chernihiv land itself, the Polovtsy freely took full, and, as the chronicler notes, Oleg did not interfere with them, "because he himself ordered them to fight." The main centers of the "Russian Land" were under the threat of attack. The troops of Khan Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl, the troops of Khan Bonyak ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv.
Princely congresses. The unity of Russia under Vladimir Monomakh. In 1097, a congress of princes, members of the princely family, gathered in Lyubech on the Dnieper, at which decisions were made that meant the most important step towards the division of the Old Russian state between members of the princely dynasty. The adopted decision - "each to keep his fatherland" meant the transformation of the lands that were in the possession of individual princes into their hereditary property, which they could now freely and without hindrance transfer to their heirs.
Characteristically, in the report of the annals of the congress, it was emphasized that not only the lands received by the sons from their fathers, but also the “cities” that Vsevolod “distributed” and where the younger members of the family were previously only princely governors become “patrimony”.
True, even after the decisions taken in Lyubech, a certain political unity of the lands that were part of the Old Russian state was preserved. It is no coincidence that at the Lyubech Congress it was not only the recognition of the rights of the princes to their "patrimonial estates", but also the general obligation to "guard" the Russian land from the "nasty".
The traditions of political unity that still survived found expression in those who gathered in the first years of the 12th century. inter-princely congresses - at the congress of 1100 in Vitichev for crimes committed on common decision of the participants of the congress, Prince Davyd Igorevich was deprived of a table in Vladimir Volynsky, at the congress of 1103 in Dolobsk it was decided that the Russian princes would march against the Polovtsy. In pursuance of the decisions taken, a whole series of campaigns followed with the participation of all the main Russian princes (1103, 1107, 1111). If during the inter-princely troubles of the 90s. 11th century The Polovtsians ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv, but now, thanks to the joint actions of the princes, the Polovtsy suffered serious defeats, and the Russian princes themselves began to undertake campaigns in the steppe, reaching the Polovtsian cities on the Seversky Donets. The victories over the Polovtsy contributed to the growth of the authority of one of the main organizers of the campaigns - the Pereyaslav prince Vladimir Monomakh. Thus, at the beginning of the XII century. Ancient Russia in relation to its neighbors, it still acted as a single entity, but already at that time, individual princes independently waged wars with their neighbors.
When in 1113 the Kyiv throne was taken by Vladimir Monomakh, under whose authority a significant part of the territory of the Old Russian state turned out to be, a serious attempt was made to restore the former significance of the power of the Kyiv prince. Monomakh considered the “younger” members of the princely family as his vassals - “handmaids” who had to go on campaigns on his orders and, in case of disobedience, could lose the princely table. Thus, Prince Gleb Vseslavich of Minsk, who “would not swear” to Monomakh even after the Kyiv prince’s troops marched on Minsk, lost his throne in 1119 and was “brought” to Kyiv. The Vladimir-Volyn prince Yaroslav Svyatopolchich also lost his table for disobedience to Monomakh. In Kyiv, during the reign of Monomakh, a new collection of laws, The Long Truth, was prepared, which was in force for centuries throughout the entire territory of the Old Russian state. And yet the restoration of the old order did not happen. In the principalities into which the Old Russian state was divided, the rule is already the second generation of rulers, whom the population has already become accustomed to looking at as hereditary sovereigns.
Monomakh's policy on the Kievan table was continued by his son Mstislav (1125–1132). He even more severely punished members of the princely family who refused to obey his orders. When the Polotsk princes did not want to take part in the campaign against the Polovtsy, Mstislav gathered an army from all over the territory of the Old Russian state and in 1127 occupied the Polotsk land, the local princes were arrested and exiled to Constantinople. However progress made were fragile, as they were based on the personal authority of both rulers, father and son.
Completion of the political collapse of the Old Russian state. After the death of Mstislav, his brother Yaropolk entered the Kyiv table, whose orders ran into opposition from the Chernigov princes. He failed to bring them into submission. The peace concluded after a war that lasted several years reflected the decline in the importance of the power of the Kyiv prince as the political head of Ancient Russia. In the late 40s - early 50s. 12th century the Kyiv table became the object of the struggle of two hostile unions of princes, headed by Izyaslav Mstislavich Volynsky and the ruler of the Rostov land, Yuri Dolgoruky. The coalition led by Izyaslav relied on the support of Poland and Hungary, while the other, led by Yuri Dolgoruky, sought help from Byzantine Empire and Polovtsy. The well-known stability of inter-princely relations under the supreme leadership of the Kyiv prince, a relatively unified policy towards neighbors, is a thing of the past. Interprincely wars of the 1940s and 1950s 12th century became the completion of the political disintegration of the Old Russian state into independent principalities.
Causes of feudal fragmentation. The Old Russian chroniclers, painting a picture of the political collapse of the Old Russian state, explained what was happening by the machinations of the devil, which led to a fall in moral standards between members of the princely family, when the elders began to oppress the younger ones, and the younger ones stopped honoring the elders. Historians, trying to find an answer to the question of the reasons for the collapse of the Old Russian state, turned to historical analogies.
A special period of feudal fragmentation took place not only in the history of Ancient Russia. Through this stage historical development passed through many European countries. The political disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the largest state in Europe in the early Middle Ages, attracted particular attention of scientists. The western part of this state during the second half of the 9th–10th centuries. turned into a motley mosaic of many loosely interconnected large and small holdings. The process of political disintegration was accompanied by major social shifts, the transformation of previously free community members into dependent people of large and small lords. All these small and large rulers sought and successfully obtained from the state power the transfer of administrative and judicial power over dependent people and the exemption of their possessions from taxes. After that, the state power turned out to be virtually powerless, and the lords-landowners ceased to obey it.
For a long time in Russian historiography, it was believed that the collapse of the Old Russian state occurred as a result of similar social changes, when the combatants of the Kyiv princes became landowners, who turned free community members into dependent people.
Indeed, the sources of the end of the XI-XII centuries. testify to the emergence of their land holdings among the combatants, in which their dependent people lived. In the annals of the XII century. more than once it is said about "boyar villages". The “Large Truth” mentions “tiuns” - persons who managed the boyars’ economy, and dependent people working in this economy - “ryadovichi” (who became dependent on a number of contracts) and “purchases”.
By the first half of the XII century. also include data on the appearance of land holdings and dependent people in the church. So, the Grand Duke Mstislav, the son of Monomakh, transferred the volost Buitsa to the St. George's Monastery in Novgorod with "a tribute and with vira and with sales." Thus, the monastery received from the prince not only land, but also the right to collect tribute from the peasants living on it in his favor, to judge them and collect judicial fines in his favor. Thus, the abbot of the monastery became a real sovereign for the community members living in the Buice volost.
All these data indicate that the process of turning senior combatants into old Russian princes into feudal landowners and the formation of the main classes of feudal society - the feudal landowners and the community members dependent on them.
However, the process of formation of new social relations was in the Russian society of the XII century. only at the very beginning. The new relations were far from becoming the main system-forming element of the social order. Not only at this time, but also much later, in the XIV-XV centuries. (as data from sources related to North-Eastern Russia, the historical core of the Russian state, show), most of the land fund was in the hands of the state, and most of the funds brought the boyar not income from his own farm, but income from "feeding" in the management of state lands.
Thus, the formation of new, feudal relations in their most typical senior form proceeded in ancient Russian society at a much slower pace than in Western Europe. The reason for this should be seen in the particularly strong cohesion and strength of rural communities. The solidarity and constant mutual assistance of neighbors could not prevent the beginning of the ruin of the community members in the conditions of increased state exploitation, but they contributed to the fact that this phenomenon did not acquire any wide dimensions and only a relatively small part rural population- "purchases" - was on the lands of combatants. It should be added to this that the very withdrawal of a relatively limited surplus product from rural community members was not an easy task, and, probably, it was no coincidence that both the princes and the social one; The top of the Old Russian society as a whole preferred to receive their income through participation in the centralized system of exploitation over a long chronological period. In ancient Russian society of the XII century. there were simply no such seniors, as in the west of Europe, who would want to refuse obedience to state power.
The answer to the question about the reasons for the political collapse of the Old Russian state should be sought in the nature of the relationship between different parts the ruling class of ancient Russian society - the "big squad", between that part of it that was in Kyiv, and those in whose hands the management of individual "lands" was. The governor sitting in the center of the earth (as the example of Yaroslav the Wise, the governor of his father Vladimir in Novgorod shows) had to transfer 2/3 of the collected tribute to Kyiv, only 1/3 was used to maintain the local squad. In return, he was guaranteed the help of Kyiv in suppressing the unrest of the local population and in protecting against an external enemy. While the formation of the state territory on the lands of the former tribal unions was going on, and the squads in the cities felt that they were constantly in a hostile environment of the local population, on which new orders were imposed by force, this nature of relations suited both sides. But as the position of both the princely governors and the local squad organization strengthened and it became capable of solving many problems independently, it was less and less inclined to give the bulk of the collected funds to Kyiv, to share with it a kind of centralized rent.
With the constant stay of the squads in certain cities, they should have had connections with the population of the cities, especially the cities - the centers of "volosts", in which the centers of the local squad organization were also located. It should be borne in mind that these "grads" were often the successors of the old tribal centers, the population of which had the skills to participate in political life. The placement of squads in the cities was followed by the appearance in them of "sotsky" and "ten" persons, who, on behalf of the prince, were supposed to manage the urban population. At the head of such an organization was the "thousand". Information about the Kyiv thousands of the second half of the XI - beginning of the IX century. show that the thousand were boyars who belonged to the close circle of the prince. One of the main duties of the thousand was to lead the city militia - "regiment" during hostilities.
The very existence of the hundredth organization led to the establishment of ties between the squad and the population of the center of the "land", both were equally interested in eliminating dependence on Kyiv. A member of a princely family who wished to become an independent ruler, that is, to appropriate part of the centralized fund of state revenues, could in this respect count on the support of both the local squad and the city militia. Under the rule in ancient Russia XI-XII centuries. subsistence economy, in the absence of strong economic ties between the individual "lands" there were no factors that could counteract these centrifugal forces.
Special features of political fragmentation in Ancient Russia. The collapse of the Old Russian state took other forms than the collapse of the Carolingian Empire. If the West-Frankish kingdom crumbled into many large and small possessions, then the Old Russian state was divided into a number of relatively large lands that stably remained within their traditional borders until the Mongol-Tatar invasion itself in the middle of the 13th century. These are Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Murom, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Tmutarakan principalities, as well as Novgorod and Pskov lands. Although the territory in which they lived East Slavs, was divided by political borders, they continued to live in a single socio-cultural space: in the ancient Russian "lands" there were largely similar political institutions and social order, the commonality of spiritual life was also preserved.
XII - first half of the XIII century. - the time of successful development of ancient Russian lands in the conditions of feudal fragmentation. The most convincing evidence of this is the results of archaeological research of ancient Russian cities of that time. So, firstly, archaeologists state a significant increase in the number of urban-type settlements - fortified fortresses with trade and craft settlements. During the XII - the first half of the XIII century. the number of settlements of this type increased by more than one and a half times, while a number of urban centers were created anew in uninhabited areas. At the same time, the territory of the main urban centers also expanded significantly. In Kyiv, the territory protected by ramparts has almost tripled, in Galich - 2.5 times, in Polotsk - twice, in Suzdal - three times. It was during the period of feudal fragmentation that the fortified “city”-fortress, the residence of the ruler or his warriors in the early Middle Ages, finally turned into a “city” - not only the seat of power and the social elite, but also the center of crafts and trade. By that time, there was already a large trade and craft population in the city settlements, not connected with the “service organization”, independently producing products and independently trading at the city market. Archaeologists have established the existence in Russia at that time of many dozens of craft specialties, the number of which was constantly increasing. The high level of craftsmanship of ancient Russian artisans is evidenced by their mastery of such complex types of Byzantine craft as the manufacture of smalt for mosaics and cloisonné enamels. The intensive development of cities would hardly have been possible without the simultaneous revitalization and upsurge of the economic life of the countryside. In the conditions of the progressive development of society within the framework of traditional socio-economic and socio-political structures, there was a slow, gradual growth of new relations characteristic of feudal society.
The negative consequences that feudal fragmentation brought with it are also well known. This is the damage that was caused to the ancient Russian lands by fairly frequent wars between princes and the weakening of their ability to resist the offensive from their neighbors. These negative consequences especially affected the life of those lands of Southern Russia that bordered on the nomadic world. Separate "lands" were no longer able to update, maintain and recreate the system of defensive lines created under Vladimir. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the princes themselves, in conflicts with each other, turned for help to their eastern neighbors - the Polovtsy, bringing them with them to the lands of their rivals. Under these conditions, there has been a gradual decline in the role and importance of the South Russian lands in the Middle Dnieper - the historical core of the Old Russian state. It is characteristic that in the first decades of the XIII century. The Pereyaslav principality was the possession of the younger relatives of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Yuri Vsevolodovich. The political role and importance of such regions remote from the nomadic world as the Galicia-Volyn and Rostov lands gradually grew.
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By the middle of the XII century. Russia split into 15 principalities, which were only formally dependent on Kyiv. At the beginning of the XIII century. there were already about 50 of them, in the XIV century. about 250.
One of the reasons for this state of statehood in Russia was the constant princely divisions of land between the Rurikovichs, their endless internecine wars and new redistribution of land. In the course of these wars, independent economic regions were formed, where the growing and united feudal clans stood behind the local princes - the boyars with their vassals, the wealthy elite of the cities, church hierarchies.
The social structure of Russian society also became more complex, its layers in individual lands and cities became more defined: large boyars, clergy, merchants, artisans, the lower classes of the city, including serfs. Developed dependence on the landowners of rural residents. All this new Russia did not need the former early medieval centralization. The nobility was born.
Political fragmentation has become a new form of organization of Russian statehood in the conditions of the development of the country's territory and its further development.
Fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of Ancient Russia. The assignment of certain territories of land to certain branches of the Kyiv princely family was a response to the challenge of the time.
Kyiv became the first among equal principalities - states. Soon other lands caught up and even outstripped him in their development. A dozen and a half independent principalities and lands were formed, the borders of which were organized within the framework of the Kievan state, as the boundaries of destinies, volosts, where local dynasties ruled.
The title of the Grand Duke was now called not only Kyiv, but also the princes of other Russian lands. Political fragmentation did not mean a rupture of ties between the Russian lands, did not lead to their complete fragmentation.
As a result of crushing, the following principalities were singled out as independent, the names of which were given by the old cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Murom, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Novgorod and Pskov lands. In each land, its own dynasty ruled - one of the branches of the Rurikovich, the sons of the prince and the boyars - the governors managed local affairs.
The loss of its historical role by Kyiv was to a certain extent connected with the movement of the main trade routes. In connection with the rapid growth of Italian cities and the activation of Italian merchants in southern Europe and the Mediterranean, ties between Western and Central Europe became closer. The Crusades brought the Middle East closer to Europe. These ties developed bypassing Kyiv. In Northern Europe, German cities were gaining strength, to which Novgorod and other cities of the Russian north-west began to focus more and more.
Centuries of intense struggle against the nomads could not pass without a trace for Kyiv and Kyiv land. This struggle exhausted the people's strength, slowing down the overall progress of the region.
The fierce struggle of the princes with each other, the endless civil strife were only an external expression of the deep processes of development of the Russian lands. If earlier strife was a reflection of the tendencies of either tribal separatism, or were associated with crises of power after the death of the great princes, now these wars were the result of new obligations of Russian life. They defended the right of princes to decide the fate of their possessions. And behind the princes stood the grown, formed social worlds of individual lands.
From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Russia is only a natural stage on the way to the future centralization of the country and the future economic and political rise already on the second civilizational basis.
The first division of the lands took place under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, during his reign princely feuds begin to flare up, the peak of which falls on 1015-1024, when only three of Vladimir's twelve sons survived. V. O. Klyuchevsky determined the beginning of the “specific period”, that is, the period of independence of the Russian principalities, from 1054, when, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia was divided among his children. The beginning of the period of fragmentation (both political and feudal) should be considered 1132, when the princes ceased to reckon with the Grand Duke of Kyiv as the head of Russia.
Political fragmentation is a new form of organization of Russian statehood.
Causes of feudal fragmentation
1) The economic basis and the main cause of feudal fragmentation is often considered subsistence farming, the result of which was the absence of economic ties.
2) Improvement of farming techniques and tools, which contributed to the development of the economy of individual principalities and cities.
3) The growth and strengthening of cities as new political, economic and cultural centers. The local boyars and the prince relied on the cities in the struggle against the great Kievan prince. The growing role of the boyars and local princes led to the revival of city veche assemblies. Often the veche was used as an instrument of pressure not only on the great, but also on the local prince, forcing him to act in the interests of the local nobility. Thus, cities, as local political and economic centers, gravitating towards their lands, were the stronghold of the decentralization aspirations of local princes and nobility.
4) The need for strong local princely power to suppress social movements which inevitably arose with the development of feudalism. Therefore, the local boyars were forced to invite the prince with his retinue to their lands, the prince received a permanent reign, his own land fiefdom, and a stable rent-tax. At the same time, the prince sought to concentrate all power in his hands, limiting the rights and privileges of the boyars. This inevitably led to a struggle between the prince and the boyars.
5) The growth of boyar estates and the number of dependent smerds in them. In the XII - early XIII centuries. many boyars had feudal immunity (the right not to interfere in the affairs of the patrimony). The contradictions between the local boyars and the great prince of Kyiv led to the strengthening of the desire of the former for political independence.
6) The weakening of the external danger from the side of the Polovtsy, defeated by Vladimir Monomakh. This made it possible to direct the main resources to solving the economic problems of individual principalities and also contributed to the development of centrifugal forces in the country.
7) The weakening of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the movement of trade routes from Europe to the East. All this led to the loss of Kyiv's historical role, the decline of the power of the great Kievan prince, whose land estates in the XII century were significantly reduced.
8) The absence of a single rule of princely succession to the throne. The following methods are distinguished: hereditary succession (by will and ladder law); usurpation, or forceful seizure of power; transfer of power to the most influential person and election.
Fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of Ancient Russia. Each dynasty no longer considered its principality as an object of military booty, economic calculation came out on top. This allowed the local authorities to more effectively respond to the discontent of the peasants, external intrusion. Political fragmentation did not mean a rupture of ties between the Russian lands, did not lead to their complete disunity. The existence of a single religion and church organization, a single language, and the single laws of Russkaya Pravda served as a rallying point for all East Slavic lands.
Formation of new state centers
The principalities and lands of Russia of the specific period were fully established states, comparable in territory to European ones. The most important at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. acquire the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities, as well as the Novgorod land, which became the political centers of North-Eastern, South-Western and North-Western Russia, respectively. In each of them, a peculiar political system is formed: a princely monarchy in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, a princely-boyar monarchy in Galicia-Volyn and a boyar (aristocratic) republic in Novgorod.
Vladimiro (Rostovo) - Suzdal land
The main factors influenced the formation of a rich and powerful principality: remoteness from the steppe nomads in the south; landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north; possession of the upper reaches of the water arteries (Volga, Oka), through which wealthy Novgorod merchant caravans passed; good opportunities for economic development; significant emigration from the south (population influx); developed since the 11th century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.); very energetic and ambitious princes who headed the principality.
The lands were regarded as the property of the prince, and the population, including the boyars, as his servants. Vassal-druzhina relations, characteristic of the period of Kievan Rus, were replaced by princely-subject relations. As a result, a patrimonial system of power developed in North-Eastern Russia.
The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son are connected with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality Yuri Dolgoruky(1125-1157), who was distinguished by his desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kyiv. He captured Kyiv and became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, actively influenced the policy of Novgorod the Great. In 1125 he moved the capital from Rostov to Suzdal, led the extensive construction of fortified cities on the borders of his principality, fought for the throne of Kyiv and occupied it from 1149 to 1151 and from 1155 to 1157; he is considered the founder of Moscow (1147).
Yuri's son and successor - Andrey Bogolyubsky(1157-1174) developed the idea of God's chosen principality of Vladimir-Suzdal, strove for ecclesiastical independence from Kyiv, fought for the subjugation of Novgorod, fought with the Volga Bulgars. In Vladimir-on-Klyazma, impregnable white-stone gates were built, the Assumption Cathedral was erected. The policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, his desire to rule alone came into conflict with the veche and boyar traditions, and in 1174 Andrei was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the boyars.
The policy of unification of all Russian lands under the rule of one prince was continued by Andrei's half-brother - Vsevolod Big Nest(1176-1212), so called for his large family. Under him, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality reached its peak. He subjugated Kyiv, Chernigov, Ryazan, Novgorod; successfully fought with the Volga Bulgaria and the Polovtsians; under him, the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir was established. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the backbone of princely power. The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, at the beginning of the XIII century. there is its disintegration into destinies: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslav, Yuryevsky, Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state.
Galicia-Volyn principality
Features and development conditions: fertile lands for agriculture and vast forests for fishing activities; significant deposits of rock salt, which was exported to neighbouring countries; convenient geographical position(neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic), which allowed for active foreign trade; relative safety from nomad attacks; the presence of an influential local boyars, who fought for power not only among themselves, but also with the princes.
The Galician principality was significantly strengthened during the reign Yaroslav Osmomysl(1153-1187). His successor (Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich) in 1199 managed to unite the Volyn and Galician principalities. After the death of Roman Mstislavovich in 1205, an internecine war broke out in the principality with the participation of Hungarians and Poles. Roman's son Daniel Galitsky(1221-1264), broke the boyar resistance and in 1240, having occupied Kyiv, managed to unite the southwestern and Kyiv lands. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was ravaged by the Mongols-Tatars, and 100 years later these lands became part of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galych).
Novgorod land
At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. a kind of political formation took shape here - a feudal aristocratic (boyar) republic. Novgorodians themselves called their state "Lord Veliky Novgorod".
Development features Novgorod land: the leading branches of the economy are trade and craft; poor development of agriculture due to the low fertility of the land and harsh climatic conditions; wide development of crafts (salting, fishing, hunting, iron production, beekeeping); an exceptionally favorable geographical position (at the crossroads of trade routes linking Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium); was not subjected to strong Mongol-Tatar plunder, although it paid tribute.
The Novgorod Republic was close to the European type of development (similar to the city-republics of the Hanseatic League) and the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). As a rule, Novgorod was ruled by that of the princes who held the throne of Kyiv. This allowed the eldest among the Rurik princes to control great path and dominate Russia. Using the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians (the uprising of 1136), the boyars, which possessed significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power, Novgorod became a boyar republic. In fact, the power belonged to the boyars, the higher clergy and eminent merchants. All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (heads of government), thousand (heads of the city militia and judges for commercial affairs), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled foreign policy Veliky Novgorod), etc. - replenished from the boyar nobility. Senior officials were elected. In the second half of the XII century. Novgorodians began to choose their spiritual pastor - Vladyka (Archbishop of Novgorod).
The prince did not have complete state power, did not inherit Novgorod land, but was invited only to perform representative and military functions. Any attempt by a prince to intervene in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion (58 princes visited in over 200 years).
The supreme body of power was the people's assembly - veche, which had broad powers: consideration of the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy; the invitation of the prince and the conclusion of an agreement with him; the election of an important trade policy for Novgorod, as well as a mayor, a judge for commercial affairs, etc. The actual owners of the veche were 300 "golden belts" - the largest boyars of Novgorod - by the 15th century. they actually usurped the rights of the people's council.
Kiev principality
The Kiev principality, endangered by the nomads, lost its former importance due to the outflow of the population and the decline in the importance of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." On the eve of the Mongol invasion, the power of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich was established in it. In 1299, the Russian metropolitan moved his residence to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, thus establishing a new alignment of forces in Russia.
Consequences of political fragmentation
Positive: the flourishing of cities in specific lands, the formation of new trade routes, the development of the economy and culture of individual principalities and lands.
Negative: fragmentation of principalities between heirs; constant princely strife, which exhausted the strength of the Russian lands; weakening the country's defense capability in the face of external danger. By 1132, there were about 15 isolated territories, at the beginning of the 13th century. There were already 50 independent principalities and destinies, and at the end of the 13th century. - 250.
The process of the onset of feudal fragmentation made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be firmly established in Russia. From this position, we can talk about the historical progressiveness of this stage of Russian history in the framework of the development of the economy and culture. In addition, this period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and integral state.
Lecture: Causes of the collapse of the Old Russian state. The largest lands and principalities. Monarchies and republics
Causes of the collapse of the Old Russian state
The reasons for the collapse of the Old Russian state are:
weak centralization of the state,
fragmentation of land during inheritance,
complex inheritance system
the aspirations of the princes to develop their principality, and not a common state,
dominance of subsistence farming.
Before his death, Prince Yaroslav the Wise divided the city between his sons: Izyaslav, as the eldest son, began to rule Kyiv, Svyatoslav went to Chernigov, Vsevolod became prince in Pereyaslavl. He ordered that after his death, each son ruled in his principality, but the elder Izyaslav was respected as a father.
Yaroslav the Wise died in 1054, and for some time the sons lived in peace and harmony, they even improved the Russkaya Pravda code of laws, introduced some new laws. The new set was named - The Truth of the Yaroslavichs. But the next order of succession to the throne, established by Yaroslav the Wise, became the cause of strife and strife between his sons. This order consisted in the fact that power passed from the elder brother to the younger, and after the death of the last of the princely brothers to the elder nephew. And if one of the brothers died before he could become a prince, then his children became outcasts and could not claim the throne. But the power of each Russian principality grew, along with it grew the personal ambitions of the heirs to the throne.
Some time after the death of Yaroslav, another nomadic tribe, the Polovtsy, came from the East instead of the Pechenegs. Polovtsy defeated the Pechenegs and began to attack southern lands Kievan Rus. They waged a more predatory war, robbing the village, burning it, and taking people away for sale in the slave markets of the East. Having finally occupied the territories of the Pechenegs and significantly expanded them, they lived throughout the entire territory from the Don to the Dnieper. And even reached the Byzantine fortresses on the Danube River. The Principality of Polotsk, which was part of Kievan Rus, separated from Kyiv at the end of the 10th century. Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, a distant relative of the Yaroslavichs, began to fight with Kyiv for political hegemony in North-Western Russia. His surprise attack on Pskov in 1065 was unsuccessful, but over the next two years he made a devastating raid on Novgorod. But on the way back, in March 1067, Vseslav was defeated by Izyaslav Yaroslavich and captured in Kyiv.
Battle of Alta
And in 1068, finally getting stronger in the new land, they made a huge invasion of Russia. Three princely squads of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod came to the defense. After a bloody battle on the Alta River, the Russian army was completely defeated. Izyaslav with the remnants of the army returned to Kyiv. The people's assembly began to demand the return of the army to the battlefield in order to defeat and drive out the Polovtsy. But Izyaslav refused under the pretext that his warriors needed to rest. Popular unrest arose, because in addition to the atrocities and destruction that the Polovtsy did, they completely blocked the trade route to Byzantium. Russian merchants could not endure this. Ultimately, the indignant crowd plundered the princely court, and Prince Izyaslav had to flee to his father-in-law, the Polish king Boleslav. The angry people of Kiev decided to release Vseslav from captivity and proclaimed him the Grand Duke. But having enlisted the support of a Polish relative and part of his army, Izyaslav quickly returned Kyiv under his control.
At this time, the prince of Chernigov, Svyatoslav, enlisted the support of the people's veche in Kyiv and his brother, Prince Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky. The basis of his support was the fact that he was able to repel the attack of the Polovtsy in his principality. Svyatoslav decided to expel Izyaslav from Kyiv. Thus began the internecine feud between the princely brothers with the involvement of the Polovtsian tribes as support. In 1073, Svyatoslav became the Grand Duke. He died in 1076 and Izyaslav took the Kyiv throne for the third time. In 1078, Kyiv was attacked by Izyaslav's nephew Oleg Svyatoslavich, who was dissatisfied with the size of his inheritance and wanted to expand. Izyaslav died in this struggle. The Principality of Kyiv in turn reached Vsevolod - last son Yaroslav, who died in 1093. Although a few years before his death, he completely entrusted the reign to his son Vladimir Monomakh, nevertheless, after the death of Vsevolod, the eldest son of Izyaslav, Svyatopolk, ascended the throne according to the law. And the silenced civil strife began with renewed vigor. These events became the root cause of the collapse of the Old Russian state.
Lyubech congress
The peace treaty in 1097 in Lyubech became a legal strengthening of the division of Kievan Rus. The princes agreed to expel the Polovtsy from Russian land, while they approved that everyone now rules independently in his principality. But strife could easily flare up again. And only the external threat emanating from the Polovtsians kept Kievan Rus from splitting into separate principalities. In 1111, Vladimir Monomakh, together with other Russian princes, made a successful campaign against the Polovtsy and defeated them. Two years later, Svyatopolk died. In Kyiv, an uprising began against the boyars of Svyatopolk and usurers (people who lent money at interest). The Kyiv elite, concerned about the current situation, out of turn called Vladimir Monomakh to the throne. So, from 1113 to 1125, the Grand Duke was the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Vladimir Monomakh. He became a wise legislator and ruler, made every effort to preserve the unity of Russia, severely punished those who caused strife. By introducing the “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh” into Russkaya Pravda, Vladimir defended the rights of purchases, which suffered from lawlessness and abuse by usurers. He compiled the most valuable source of Russian history "Instruction". The arrival of Vladimir Monomakh temporarily united the Old Russian state, 3/4 of the Russian land was subordinated to him. Under him, Russia was the strongest power. Trade developed well, he preserved the "Road from the Varangians to the Greeks".
After the death of Monomakh in 1125, his son Mstislav, who ruled until 1132, was able to preserve the unity of Russia for a short while. But after his death, everything returned back to the internal war, the "specific period" began - the period of fragmentation of Kievan Rus. And if before that Kievan Rus was united, then to XII century it was already divided into 15 principalities, and after another 100 years, it represented about 50 different principalities, with their rulers. During 1146–1246 power in Kyiv changed 47 times, which finally destroyed the authority of the capital.
The largest lands and principalities. Monarchies and republics
Although there were almost fifty principalities, three main ones can be distinguished, which had a huge impact on the entire territory as a whole.
The greatest influence among the Russian lands of the period of fragmentation had:
Vladimir-Suzdal land,
Novgorod Republic,
Vladimir-Suzdal land
Vladimir-Suzdal land was territorially located between the Oka and Volga rivers. It was significantly removed from the borders, and, accordingly, from raids, and was a fertile plain, which was perfect for all agricultural needs such as agriculture and cattle breeding. These factors served for a constant influx of people from different categories, such as farmers, cattle breeders, artisans, and so on. There were many merchants and junior warriors in the main frontier lands. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became independent and independent of Kyiv under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1155-1157). A massive influx of population occurred in the XI-XII centuries. Those who came from the southern regions of Russia were attracted by the fact that the principality was relatively safe from the Polovtsy raids (the territory was significantly covered with dense forests), fertile lands and pastures, rivers along which dozens of cities grew (Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Kostroma, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod).
The son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, during his reign, maximized the princely power and displaced the rule of the boyars, who were often almost equal to the prince. In order to reduce the influence of the people's veche, he moved the capital from Suzdal. Due to the fact that in Vladimir, the veche was not so powerful, he became the capital of the principality. He also completely dispersed all possible contenders for the throne. His reign can be seen as the beginning of the dawn of a monarchy with single-handed despotic elements. He replaced the boyars with the nobles, who were completely subordinate to him and appointed by him. They might not have been from the nobility, but they had to completely obey him. He was actively involved in foreign policy, tried to gain influence among the boyars and the nobility of Kyiv and Novgorod, organized campaigns against them.
After his death, Vsevolod the Big Nest ascended the throne, who, instead of trying to subjugate power in the old cities, actively built and improved new ones, receiving great support from the population and the petty nobility. Vladimir, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Dmitrov, Gorodets, Kostroma, Tver - these cities became the stronghold of his power. He carried out large-scale stone construction and provided support to architecture. Vsevolod's son Yuri conquered a significant part of the territories of the Novgorod Republic, and in 1221 founded Nizhny Novgorod, the largest city in the eastern part of the principality.
Novgorod Republic
In Novgorod, unlike other principalities, the power was not with the prince, but with the rich and noble families of the boyars. The Novgorod Republic, or as it is also called North-Western Russia, did not have fertile plains or other conditions for the development of agricultural labor. Therefore, the main craft of the population was handicraft, beekeeping (collecting honey) and fur trades. Therefore, for a successful existence and obtaining food, it was necessary to conduct trade relations. This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the Novgorod Republic was on the trade route. Not only merchants were engaged in trade, the boyars also took an active part. Due to trade, the nobility quickly got rich and began to play an important role in the political structure, without losing the opportunity to pick up a little power during the change of princes.
And so, after the overthrow, arrest, and then the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod, a complete formation takes place. Novgorod republic. The veche became the main apparatus of power, it was it that made decisions on issues of war and peace, appointed the highest leadership positions. The positions assigned by the veche were as follows:
Posadnik - was the main person, the ruler.
Voivode - responsible for the rule of law in the city.
The bishop is the head of the Novgorod church.
Also, it was the veche that decided the issue of inviting the prince, whose powers were reduced to a military leader. At the same time, all decisions were made under the supervision of the masters and the posadnik.
Such a structure of Novgorod allowed it to become an aristocratic republic, based on the Veche traditions of Ancient Russia.
Southern Russia, Galicia-Volyn principality
Initially, during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl in 1160–1180, the Principality of Galicia achieved normalization of relations within the principality. An agreement has been reached between the boyars, the veche and the prince, and the willfulness of the boyar communities is passing away. Yaroslav Osmomysl, in order to provide himself with support, marries the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky, Princess Olga. Under his rule, the Galician principality reaches sufficient power.
After his death in 1187, the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, Roman Mstislavich, came to power. First, he subjugates Volyn, creates a strong Galicia-Volyn principality, and then captures Kyiv. Having united all three principalities, he became the ruler of a huge state, equal in area to the German Empire.
His son Daniil Galitsky was also an influential political figure who did not allow the separation of the principality. The Principality was actively involved in international politics, having many relations with Germany, Poland, Byzantium and Hungary. By type of government, it was no different from the early feudal monarchy in Europe.
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Historians consider the date of the beginning of the collapse of the Old Russian state to be the year of the death of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise, who owned the throne of Kyiv from 1016 to 1054.
Of course, centrifugal forces in the Russian state began to act even under Vladimir the Baptist: Yaroslav the Wise himself opposed his father, refusing to pay tribute to Kyiv in 2,000 hryvnias.
strife
Discord between the sons of Vladimir arose immediately after his death. At first, it almost resulted in the capture of Kyiv by the Pechenegs, who were called by the son of Vladimir Yaropolk, and then the Polish king Boleslav the Brave almost ascended the throne of Kyiv. And only the indignant population of Kyiv managed to save the situation: the people of Kiev began to cut the Poles, and the king with the army was forced to leave the city.
The strife between the 12 sons of Vladimir led to the fact that everyone died, except for Yaroslav and Mstislav. And after the death of the Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise, who did a lot to strengthen the Old Russian state, Russia, according to the historian Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, "buried its power and prosperity."
Two forces
The Soviet historian Boris Dmitrievich Grekov noted in his writings that the Old Russian state collapsed under the influence of two forces: the strength of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, seeking to assert his dominance in the lands of Russia, and the forces of specific princes, each of which denied the right of Kyiv to dispose of all the land and sought to assert its sovereignty .
Many conflicts arose because of the order of applicants for princely tables. Power was transferred by seniority - from a smaller table to a larger one, which caused controversy.
New principle of succession
After the death of Yaroslav, the struggle for Kyiv and its sovereignty was continued by his sons, and then by his grandchildren. Although one of them - Vladimir Monomakh - in 1097 tried to stop the strife, gathering all the princes in the city of Lyubech, where he was proclaimed new principle succession of princely power. From now on, each prince with his offspring kept his fiefdom, not claiming other people's cities. And although civil strife subsided, in fact, this only increased the disunity of the lands.
At the princely council, Kyiv remained the patrimony of the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, after whom Vladimir Monomakh himself ascended the throne. The time of his reign and the reign of his son, Mstislav, became a period of relative stability in Russia. But later, Mstislav handed over the reign to his brother Yaropolk, who decided to fulfill the will of his father - Vladmir Monomakh - and plant the eldest son of his brother Mstislav, his nephew Vsevolod-Gabriel, Prince of Novgorod, to reign in Kyiv. This outraged the other sons of Monomakh, among whom was Yuri Dolgoruky, who owned Rostov, and led to a general war, about which the Novgorod chronicle says the following: "... And the whole Russian land was torn to pieces ..."
13 lands
Closer to the middle of the 12th century, Ancient Russia actually broke up into 13 lands that were heterogeneous in area and composition of the population.
Nine princely "fatherlands" remained the backbone of the state.
The Principality of Gorodno (the city of Gorodno), which later broke up into volosts and came under the rule of Lithuania.
The Turov-Pinsk principality, located in Polesie and in the region of the lower reaches of the Pripyat River, with the cities of Turov and Pinsk. Two centuries later, it fell under the rule of the Lithuanian princes.
Volyn-Vladimir principality, headed by the city of Vladimir, which included the smaller cities of Lutsk, Izyaslavl, Dorogobuzh, Shumsk and others.
Smolensk Principality with its center in Smolensk, which was located in the upper reaches of the Volga and Northern Dvina rivers and included at least 18 cities and settlements, including Mozhaisk, Orsha, Rzhev, Toropets and Rostislavl.
The Principality of Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal, and in the XII century - Vladimir-Suzdal), which was located in the north-east of Russia and extended far to the north.
The Principality of Murom, headed by the city of Murom, was part of the Kyiv estate for a long time, but separated at the beginning of the 13th century and existed until the invasion of the Horde.
Around 1160, the Ryazan principality separated from the Principality of Murom, with its center in Ryazan. True, historians often consider these lands as one whole.
In the south of Russia, the Principality of Chernigov and the Principality of Galicia continued to exist.
The Kiev principality was still considered the center of the Old Russian land, although the power of Kyiv was nominal and rested on the authority of ancestors and tradition.
Four more "lands" did not have princely power over themselves. This was Novgorod with the surrounding territories, in which a strong local elite was formed and power belonged to the veche. Later, Pskov broke away from the Novgorod lands, which was also controlled by the people's assembly. The Pereyaslav lands did not have their own princes, but invited outside rulers to reign. For a long time, the city of Galich remained a draw (later it entered the Galicia-Volyn principality).
The domestic and foreign policy of the state was ahead of the four most powerful principalities - Suzdal, Volyn, Smolensk and Chernigov.
Known until the XII century, the principality of Tmutarkan and the city of Belaya Vezha at the very beginning of the century fell under the onslaught of the Kipchaks (Polovtsy) and ceased to exist.
Russia is united
However, the idea of the unity of the Russian land did not disappear, as before, Kyiv remained a “capital city”, and the Kyiv prince was called the “prince of all Russia”, although the Vladimir princes already had the right to bear the title “Grand Duke”.
Before the conquest of the southern territories by Lithuania, all Russian lands were, in fact, in the possession of one princely family - the Rurik family, which united at the moment of the highest danger to the homeland. So, for example, almost all the princes took part in the campaign against the Mongol army in 1233.
The Orthodox faith played a huge role in the unification of the lands. The Church was alone and was first headed by the Metropolitan of Kyiv. At the end of the 13th century, the residence of the metropolitan was transferred to Vladimir, and then to Moscow.
In addition to these factors, there was a historically established cultural and linguistic community, which did not allow the Old Russian state to completely disintegrate and sink into oblivion.
