Methods of research in pedagogy and pedagogical psychology. Methods of pedagogical psychology. General concept of the psyche

Chapter 2

SUBJECT, METHODS AND TASKS OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 The subject of educational psychology

As already mentioned, human development primarily proceeds through the assimilation of social experience. This process begins literally from the first days of a child's life and continues virtually throughout his life. Before school, a child learns a lot in the process of playing. Such assimilation is a by-product of play activity.

When the child comes to school, he begins to engage in activities, the purpose of which is precisely the assimilation of social experience. The peculiarity of this activity also lies in the fact that it is specially organized and takes place with the help of teachers. This kind of learning is called teaching.

Pedagogical psychology studies the learning process: its structure, characteristics, patterns of flow. Pedagogical psychology also explores the age and individual characteristics of learning. The central place is occupied by the study of conditions that give the greatest effect of development.

In the process of learning, a person acquires not only intellectual experience, but also other types of experience: moral, aesthetic, etc. When we are talking about the assimilation of these types of experience, this process is called education. Thus, the object of pedagogical psychology is always the processes of teaching and education. In all theories of learning, the object is the same. However, what is studied in this object, i.e. the actual subject of research depends already on the theory. So, behaviorism limits the subject of study to stimuli and reactions, i.e. individual elements of the activity of teaching. With the activity approach, the subject of research is the indicative part of the student's activity.

2.2 Methods of educational psychology

In educational psychology, the same methods are used as in other branches of psychological science. The main methods are observation and experiment.

Observation is one of the methods of data collection through direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study. A specific feature of this method is that when using it, the researcher does not influence the subject of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to him, but waits for their natural manifestation.

The main characteristics of the observation method are purposefulness, regularity. Observation is implemented using a special technique that contains a description of the entire observation procedure. Its main points are as follows:

the choice of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;
observation program: a list of those aspects, properties of the object that will be recorded.
In principle, two types of goals can be distinguished. In exploratory research, the goal is to obtain as much information as possible about the object of interest. For example, fixing the behavior of six-year-olds who entered school, in the classroom, during recess, at home; in communication with teachers, parents, class students, etc. The collection of broad information makes it possible to identify problems that require special research.
In other cases, observation is very selective. Thus, the well-known Swiss researcher J. Piaget, when studying children's thinking, observed only such games in which children from two objects received, as it were, one (one object was inside the other). This formed the child's understanding of a certain relationship between objects.
way of capturing the received information.

The observer himself is a particular problem: his presence can change the behavior of the person he is interested in. This problem is solved in two ways: the observer must become a familiar member of the collective where he intends to observe. Another way is to observe while remaining invisible to the object of observation. This path has limitations, primarily moral ones.

The content of psychological observation depends on the understanding of the subject matter of psychology. So, if this method is used by a behaviorist, then the observation program will include features of external reactions; the behaviorist observes his subject directly.

With an activity approach to the subject of psychology, which is the orienting part of activity, such direct observation is by no means always possible: the orienting part of activity, as a rule, takes place in an internal, mental form. Consequently, direct observation of it is excluded 1 . In this case, the observation is directed to the important components of this activity, which allow us to judge the part of interest to us indirectly. This means that the correct use of this method requires professional training.

1 There was a period in the history of psychology when the method of direct observation of the course of mental processes was used - the method of introspection (“looking inside oneself”). In this case, the observer had to observe his own mental phenomena. This method did not justify itself.

At the same time, it should be noted that the method of observation is used not only in research, but also in practical activities, including teaching. The teacher observes the behavior of children, how they perform various tasks in the class, and uses the information received to improve their work both with the class as a whole and with individual students. However, even in this case it is not easy to draw a correct conclusion about certain features of the child's inner life.

Here is one example of a teacher's observation. The teacher could not find an approach to one of her students. He gave her a lot of trouble. She decided to get to know the boy better, learn more about his interests and take them into account when conducting lessons. And then one day she decided to read a story that, in her opinion, was in the interests of the boy. To her great delight, the boy sat as if rooted to the spot while reading the story and did not take his eyes off her. For a playful fidget, it was amazing. And the teacher internally already triumphed over the pedagogical victory. After she finished reading, she began to ask questions about what she had read. To her surprise, the boy did not raise his hand. At the next question, she invited him to give an answer. The boy couldn't. Turning to him, the teacher asked, “Why can't you answer? I saw how carefully you listened to the story. The boy was an honest child and, embarrassed, admitted: "I did not listen, I watched how funny your jaw moved when you read."

As we can see, the object of the boy's attention was not the one that the teacher had established based on his outward behavior 2 .

2 For details, see: General Practice in Psychology. Method of observation / Ed. M.B. Mikhalevskaya. - M., 1985. -Ch. one.

The experiment occupies a central place in psychological research. Its difference from observation is that the experimenter acts on the object under study in accordance with the hypothesis of the study. Suppose a researcher has hypothesized that learning is more successful when the learner knows exactly the nature of his mistakes. To test this hypothesis, it is necessary to take two groups of trainees who are approximately the same in terms of their initial level of development and other characteristics. In both groups, children receive the same task, for example, learn to write a capital letter B. In one group, after each trial, the experimenter indicates which elements are reproduced correctly, which are incorrect, and what exactly is the deviation from the sample. In the other group, the experimenter simply says that the letter is misspelled and suggests that they try again. The experimenter fixes the number of repetitions that were required for the correct reproduction of the letter in both groups. It can also record children's attitudes towards work and other indicators.

There are two types of experiment: laboratory and natural. The main difference between them is that in a laboratory experiment, the subject knows that something is being tested with him, that he is passing some kind of test. In a natural experiment, the subjects do not know this, since the experiment is carried out in the conditions familiar to them, they are not informed about it.

The above experiment can be organized both as a laboratory experiment and as a natural one. In the case of a natural experiment, students of the first two parallel classes during the period of teaching them to write can be taken as subjects.

A laboratory experiment can be carried out with the subjects, but already outside the scope of class work, and it can be carried out both in the form of an individual and in the form of a collective experiment.

Each of these types of experiment has its advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage of a natural experiment is that the subjects are unaware of the changes introduced into their activities. However, with this type of experiment, it is difficult to fix the features of children's activity that are of interest to the experimenter.

In a laboratory experiment, on the contrary, there are great opportunities for collecting and accurately recording data if it is carried out in a laboratory specially equipped for this. But the student's awareness of himself as a test subject can influence the course of his activity.

In recent decades, a number of lengthy and very significant natural experiments have been carried out in our country in the field of education. First of all, one should point to the experiment conducted under the direction of D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov in elementary school. This experiment made it possible to identify the conditions for educative and developmental education, as well as the age-related capabilities of children in the assimilation of scientific knowledge.

Any type of experiment includes the following steps:

Goal setting: concretization of a hypothesis in a specific problem.
Planning the course of the experiment.
Conducting an experiment: collecting data.
Analysis of the obtained experimental data.
Conclusions that allow us to draw experimental data 1 .

1 For more details, see: General Practice in Psychology. Psychological experiment / Ed. M.B. Mikhalevskaya, T.V. Kornilova. - M., 1985. - Part 1 - P. 3-15

Both laboratory and natural experiments are divided into ascertaining and forming.

The ascertaining experiment is used in those cases when it is necessary to establish the actual state of already existing phenomena. For example, to explore the ideas of six-year-old children about living and non-living things. Another type of problem solved with the help of this method is related to the elucidation of the role of various conditions in the course of existing processes. So, it was found that the significance of the problem being solved for the subject affects his visual acuity.

In the field of educational psychology, the formative experiment is especially important. As it was pointed out, pedagogical psychology is called upon to study the patterns of learning. The main way for this is to trace the assimilation of new knowledge and actions when various conditions are introduced into the process of their formation, i.e. use a formative experiment. Naturally, the method of experiment, like the method of observation, depends on how the subject of science is understood. So, the formative experiment in the behaviorist approach to learning is focused on identifying the conditions that make it possible to obtain a given response. With the activity approach, in contrast to the previous one, the object of study is a holistic activity. The researcher must know the objective composition of the activity that he is going to form. If the content of the activity of interest is known (described in social experience), then there are no difficulties with solving this problem. However, a huge number of human activities are not disclosed. In this case, the researcher must carry out special work. It, in turn, involves the use of appropriate methods.

The main methods that are used to highlight the objective composition of activities are divided into two types.

1. Theoretical modeling of this activity with subsequent experimental verification.

Any activity is adequate to some class of tasks. There is no such activity that would not be adequate to any task or adequate to all types of tasks. The task consists of conditions (data) and the desired. This means that the analysis of the task already makes it possible to single out some elements of the activity. The desired is a product that a person should receive as a result of solving a problem. So, in the problem of proof, as the desired one, it is necessary to obtain, for example, that the angles are equal. Here the product lies in the fact that the object that is given (for example, vertical angles) has signs of equality. This means that the activity of proof includes the action of subsuming under a concept. In fact, it is necessary to establish that the angles given in the condition belong to the class of equals, and this is the action of subsuming under the concept.

Thus, by analyzing the problem, we get the opportunity to reveal those elements that are objectively included in the activities necessary to solve this problem.

The second way to reveal the content of activity is to use the knowledge of psychology about the structure of activity, about its functional parts. Using invariant knowledge about these aspects of activity, we get the opportunity to gradually build a model of the activity we are interested in, i.e. identify a system of actions that, following one after another, constitute the process of solving a given problem. But since this model was obtained theoretically, the researcher does not have full confidence that he has built this model correctly. Experimental verification of this model is required. So, G.A. Butkin singled out three actions in the activity of proof at the beginning. He considered the distinguished actions to be sufficient for proving theorems. Started experimental testing. As subjects, he took people who did not know how to perform this activity.

It turned out that the subjects learned to prove theorems, but not by the rational method: they followed the path of enumeration of options, i.e. used the machine method. Therefore, the researcher had to continue the work. In the case of proof, another action was found - the action to determine the search area. The modified model is once again being tested experimentally. In our case, it satisfied the requirements that apply to rational human activity in proving theorems. Thus, before shaping this or that activity, it is often necessary to carry out preliminary work, which is also associated with the use of certain methods.

2. To identify the objective composition of the activity, the method of studying this activity in people who are good at it, and in people who make mistakes when performing it, is also used. For example, let's take the task: "Build four equilateral triangles from six matches." When solving it, two mistakes are usually made: either they start breaking matches and thus get triangles not from matches, but from half-matches (the condition requires that a triangle be built from matches, and not from half-matches). Another mistake: the solver tries to build triangles on the plane. And on the plane it is impossible to do this. Thus, error analysis also provides some information about the activity required to solve the problem.

So, theoretical analysis, based on the task and knowledge of psychology about the structure, about the functional structure of activity, makes it possible step by step to build the human activity that interests the researcher. It is then subject to formation in the main experiment.

Other research methods. In addition to observation and experiment, pedagogical psychology also uses such methods as the method of conversation, the method of studying the products of activity, questioning, etc.

The conversation is used in different ways. In some cases, the researcher creates the conditions for its natural occurrence. In this case, the interlocutor does not suspect that he is the subject of study. In other cases, the person agrees to the conversation, knowing that he is the subject. When studying the products of activity (essays, control works in mathematics, etc.), the researcher can obtain information about the process of assimilation by their characteristics, by the mistakes made; in particular, about the conditions hindering or facilitating this process.

Questionnaires are also widely used. In particular, this method is especially often used in the study of the motives of teaching. The main difficulty in its application is the development of a correct list of questions included in the questionnaire. Usually this method is used as an auxiliary research method.

2.3 Tasks of educational psychology

Pedagogical psychology is called upon to study the structure, properties and patterns of the learning process. Its central problem is to identify the conditions that ensure the successful assimilation of knowledge and skills, giving a high developmental and educational effect of learning. In educational psychology, an important place is also occupied by the task of studying the age capabilities of children, especially those of preschool and primary school age. Pedagogical psychology is one of the basic sciences of pedagogy and private methods.

Professional training of a teacher is impossible without studying pedagogical psychology. It allows the teacher to correctly develop training cycles, analyze the difficulties of students that arise in the course of mastering; carry out the necessary corrective work and solve many other professional tasks.

2.4 The main system of concepts used in educational psychology

Different psychologists invest different content in the concepts used in educational psychology. With this in mind, we indicate what content is embedded in these concepts in this textbook.

The broadest concept is learning activity. By this concept, we designate the joint activity of the teacher and the activity of the student. As equivalent to this concept, the term educational process is used. The term assimilation is understood as the process of transition of elements of social experience into individual experience. Such a transition always presupposes the activity of a subject assimilating social experience. Assimilation occurs in different types of activity: in the game, work, teaching.

Teaching is the activity of a student included in the learning process. In this case, the process of assimilation of social experience is specially organized by the representative of the older generation - the teacher. Teaching has as its goal precisely the assimilation of social experience. The assimilation that occurs in the process of play, labor, is, as it were, a by-product, since these types of activities are performed in order to achieve other goals. So, the purpose of labor activity is to obtain a certain product of labor (food, clothing, etc.).

The activity of the teacher in the educational process is called teaching: the student learns, and the teacher teaches.

The term formation is also among the basic concepts. Formation is the activity of either an experimenter-researcher or a teacher associated with the organization of the assimilation of a certain element of social experience (concepts, actions) by a student. Both formation and training are connected with the activities of the teacher, but their content does not coincide. First, the concept of learning is broader than the concept of formation. Secondly, when they say learning, they mean either what the teacher teaches (mathematics, language), or who he teaches: students. The term formation is usually used when it comes to what a student acquires: a concept, a skill, a new type of activity.

Thus, the teacher teaches (something), forms (something), and the student learns (something), assimilates (something). The term learning is also used. In foreign psychology, it is used as an equivalent of teaching. IN domestic psychology it is commonly used in relation to animals. The analogue of that activity which we call learning in man is called learning in animals. We don't usually talk about learning in animals, but about learning. Animals have only two kinds of experience: innate and individually acquired. The latter is the result of learning. The term development is associated with the process of assimilation. But development is understood as the present level of what has been developed, mastered, which has already passed from the plane of social experience into the plane of individual experience and, at the same time, has led to some new formations in the personality, intellect, etc.

IN learning activities(learning process) the student learns different types of social experience: intellectual (scientific), industrial, moral, aesthetic, etc.

The general patterns of assimilation of any kind of social experience coincide. At the same time, the process of assimilation of moral, aesthetic experience has its own specific features. In this regard, when talking about these types of experience, they use the term education. In these cases, the activity is called educative: the teacher educates, the student is educated.

test questions

Is it enough to say that the subject of educational psychology is the process of learning? Why?
What is a method? How does the method of research differ from the method of teaching, from the method of solving a school problem?
What are the main methods in educational psychology?
What is the difference between a stating experiment and a formative one?
What is the difference between a natural experiment and a method of observation?
What is the essence of the theoretical-experimental modeling method? Do supporters of the behaviorist approach to learning need this method? Why?
Name the main stages of the formative experiment.
What should be learned when mastering the method of observation?

Literature

General workshop on psychology. Method of observation / Ed. Mikhalevskoy M.B. - M., 1985.-Ch. 1. - p.3-26
General workshop on psychology. Psychological experiment / Ed. Mikhalevskoy M.B. and Kornilova T.V. - M., 1985. - Part 1. - S.3-15
Talyzina N.F. Ways of modeling the methods of cognitive activity // Management of the process of assimilation of knowledge. - M., 1984. - S.201-207

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru

1. Object and subject of psychological science. The specifics of psychological knowledge

An object is a fragment of an objective, i.e. existing independently of the consciousness of researchers of reality.

The subject is a science-specific angle of view on an object, an aspect of the object itself, specific to a certain branch of science and set by its categorical apparatus, the research methods used by it.

The subject of study of general psychology are:

Cognitive and practical activities;

General patterns of mental processes: sensations, perceptions, memory, imagination, thinking, mental self-regulation;

Differential-psychological features of a person's personality;

Character, temperament, prevailing motives of behavior, etc.;

Fundamental problems: the essence and content of the mental, the emergence and development of the psyche in phylo and ontogenesis.

At all times, humanity has been interested in questions about what a person is: what determines the causes and patterns of his actions, the laws of behavior in society, the inner world.

An intriguing task was to understand how mental images arise, what consciousness, thinking, creativity are, what are their mechanisms. All these and many other questions are being answered by psychology, which since its inception has been balancing between science, art and faith. What are the difficulties of its formation?

First, it is the science of the most complex of all that is known to mankind. Even the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, starting his treatise "On the Soul", wrote: "Among other knowledge, the study of the soul should be given one of the first places, since it is knowledge about the most sublime and amazing." And the great physicist A. Einstein, getting acquainted with the experiments of the famous psychologist J. Piaget, summarized his impressions in the paradoxical phrase that the study of physical problems is a child's game in comparison with the mysteries of the psychology of a child's game.

Secondly, in psychology, a person simultaneously acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition.

A unique phenomenon occurs: the scientific consciousness of a person becomes scientific self-consciousness.

Thirdly, in psychological research, the difficult and ambiguously solved problem of the objectivity of scientific knowledge is especially acute. Many scientists refused to recognize psychology as an objective scientific discipline, arguing that it is impossible to objectively study the subjective inner world of a person, which is directly open for knowledge only to him alone.

The difficulties of the formation and development of psychology are determined, finally, by the fact that it is a very young science. Despite the fact that questions about the essence and characteristics of the human psyche were raised in the works of ancient and medieval philosophers, scientific psychology received official formalization a little over a hundred years ago - in 1879, when the German psychologist W. Wundt opened the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig. psychology. The word “psychology” itself first appeared in the 16th century. in Western European texts. It is derived from the Greek words "psyche" (soul) and "logos" (knowledge, science): translated literally, psychology is the science of the soul. This definition does not correspond to modern views on psychological science. The title reflects the ideas about psychology, characteristic of the period of its origin and initial development within the framework of philosophy. According to the philosophical understanding of that time, it was the soul that acted as the subject of psychology - the main, essential beginning of objects of living nature, the cause of life, breathing, cognition, etc.

The formation of psychology as an independent, truly scientific discipline also took place against the background of discoveries that were made in the framework of natural science research.

Psychology arose at the intersection of two large areas of knowledge - philosophy and natural sciences, and it has not yet been determined whether to consider it a natural science or a humanitarian one. The words “psychologist”, “psychology” have gone beyond the scope of scientific treatises and have been developed in everyday life: experts in human souls, passions and characters are called psychologists; the word "psychology" is used in several meanings - it is understood as both scientific and non-scientific knowledge. In ordinary consciousness, these concepts are often confused.

Each person has a store of worldly psychological knowledge, the basis of which is life experience. We can understand another, influence his behavior, predict his actions, help him. Being a good everyday psychologist is one of the important requirements for specialists in those professions that involve constant communication with people, such as a teacher, doctor, manager, salesman, etc. The brightest examples of everyday psychology are those works of literature and art, which present a deep psychological analysis of life situations and motives for the behavior of heroes. The content of worldly psychology is embodied in rituals, traditions, proverbs, sayings, parables, rituals that consolidate centuries-old folk wisdom. In this regard, the question arises: is scientific psychology necessary, or, perhaps, the knowledge and experience accumulated in everyday psychology is enough to help a person overcome life's difficulties, understand other people and himself? To answer this question, it is necessary to realize the fundamental difference between worldly and scientific psychological knowledge. Three main differences are seen.

According to the degree of generalization of knowledge and the forms of their presentation. Everyday psychological knowledge is specific: it is associated with certain people, certain situations and particular tasks.

The concepts of everyday psychology, as a rule, are characterized by vagueness and ambiguity.

Scientific psychology, like any science, strives for generalizations. For this, scientific concepts are clearly defined and used, which reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena, general connections and relationships.

By the method of obtaining knowledge and the degree of their subjectivity. Everyday knowledge about human psychology is acquired through direct observation of other people and self-observation, through practical trial and error. They are intuitive, rather irrational and highly subjective. Knowledge of worldly psychology is often contradictory, fragmented and poorly systematized. The methods of obtaining knowledge in scientific psychology are rational, conscious and purposeful. The wealth of methods used by scientific psychology provides extensive, varied material, which, in a generalized and systematized form, appears in logically consistent concepts and theories. To test the hypotheses put forward in scientific psychology, scientists develop and organize special experiments, the essence of which is that the researcher does not expect a random manifestation of mental processes of interest to him, but creates special conditions to cause them.

Ways to transfer knowledge. The possibilities of transferring knowledge in everyday psychology from one person to another are very limited. This is due, first of all, to the fact that there are difficulties in the verbal formulation of individual psychological experience, the whole complex range of emotional experiences, at the same time there is a certain distrust in the reliability and truth of this kind of information. This fact is clearly illustrated by the age-old problem of "fathers" and "children", which consists precisely in the fact that children cannot and do not want to adopt the experience of their elders. Each generation learns from its own mistakes. The accumulation and transfer of scientific knowledge occurs in concepts and laws, scientific concepts and theories. They are enshrined in specialized literature and are easily passed on from generation to generation. These differences show the advantages of scientific psychological knowledge. At the same time, we cannot deny the need for everyday experience, which plays an important role in the development of psychology as a science. Scientific psychology:

First, it relies on everyday psychological experience;

Secondly, it extracts its tasks from it;

Thirdly, at the last stage they are checked.

The relationship between scientific and worldly psychological knowledge is not straightforward. Not all professional psychologists are good life psychologists. And the fact that you will get acquainted with the basics of scientific psychology does not mean that you will immediately become connoisseurs of human souls. However, the constant analysis of life situations that arise, using the knowledge that you will receive by studying psychology, will help you better understand other people, the world around you, and ultimately yourself.

The concepts and concepts of scientific psychology influence people's worldly ideas about mental life. Scientific psychological concepts penetrate the spoken language, and people begin to actively use them to describe their states or personality traits.

The result of the increased interest in scientific psychology in society has been the active development of popular psychology, which provides fundamental scientific knowledge to a wide audience, making them simpler and more understandable. The positive role of popular psychology is to form a general psychological culture of society and to attract interest in psychology as a scientific discipline.

2. Relationship between theory and practice in psychology. Methods and techniques of psychological research

The experimental method can be applied in laboratory and natural conditions. The essence of this method is to identify a cause-and-effect relationship between certain properties of mental phenomena. The identification of this dependence contributes to the creation of experimental conditions under which it is possible to obtain more necessary information about the studied mental phenomenon. When preparing an experiment, one must remember that there are three groups of variable factors: independent, dependent and controlled variables.

The independent variable is the factor that the experimenter introduces into the experiment in order to evaluate its effect on the process.

Dependent variables -- factors associated with the behavior of the subjects and depending on the state of their body.

Controlled variables are factors that can be strictly controlled in an experiment.

Between the independent and dependent variables are intermediate, internal factors that cannot be strictly controlled.

Thus, J. Godefroy notes in his book “What is Psychology”, to experiment means to study the influence of an independent variable on one or more dependent ones with strict control of all other variables, called controlled ones.

Method of questioning and testing.

Questionnaires provide an opportunity to obtain information about large groups of people by interviewing some of these people who make up a representative (representative) sample. Questioning provides an opportunity to identify certain trends and understand the way for further deeper psychological research through testing or experimentation.

Tests are a standardized method used to measure various characteristics of individuals who are the subjects of research. Tests allow you to assess the level of development of intellectual or perceptual abilities, personality traits, character, temperament, etc.

In practice, two main types of tests are used: questionnaires and projective tests.

Questionnaires are based on the ability of a person to consciously evaluate himself and his actions.

Projective tests are designed in such a way that they are more turned to the subconscious sphere, and help to identify such personality traits that a person himself is not aware of. Projective methods include the Luscher color test, the Tree test, the Non-existent animal test, various drawing tests, etc.

Questionnaires are processed according to certain keys, and then interpreted depending on the received data. Our textbook contains tests-questionnaires that are published and can be used for self-knowledge. Projective tests are difficult to process and require special psychological preparation for their interpretation, so they are not used in the textbook.

The method of observation is a descriptive method by which the researcher systematically observes the behavior of another person, the external manifestations of the psyche and draws conclusions about mental processes, states and properties from them. this person. Scientific observations have an organized, planned character, during which observation maps are drawn up. This method is often used in the teaching process.

The method of self-observation (introspective) is the most ancient method used in psychology, it involves the observation of a person over his inner, mental world. This method helps in the application of other research methods, as well as for providing self-help in difficult cases and in self-realization.

In psychology, the method of conversation (interview) and analysis of the products of activity (essays, letters, results) are also used. professional activity etc.).

Our textbook is built in accordance with the structure of practical psychology described above.

We hope that the study of practical psychology will help you in life, study, work and communication with different people.

3. The method of psychoanalysis and its role in the development of psychology. Fundamentals of Gestalt Psychotherapy

Psychoanalysis is one of the first psychological directions that appeared as a result of the division of psychology into different schools. Released in 1900 and 1901 Z. Freud's books "Psychology of Dreams" and "Psychopathology of Everyday Life" are considered to be conditional milestones in the birth of this trend, since they formulated its main postulates. Unlike previous areas, especially Gestalt psychology, in psychoanalysis not only the subject of psychology, but also priorities have been radically revised - not intellect, but motivation comes first. The subject of psychology in this school, as already mentioned, was the deep, unconscious structures of the psyche, and the method of their study was psychoanalysis developed by this school.

In the formation of this school, the leading role belongs, of course, to Z. Freud. It can be said without exaggeration that the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud is one of those scientists who largely influenced the further development of modern psychology, and perhaps directed it along a certain path of development. This is connected not only with the content of his concept, but also with the personal qualities of the scientist. His statements about the priority of the unconscious in the content of the psyche, about the significance of sexual desires and aggression were not fundamentally new for psychology. These ideas were in the air at that time, as evidenced by the works of Janet, Charcot, Liebeault. It was they who gave Freud the idea of the role of hypnosis and suggestion, of the possibility of its delayed effect. Important for him was Brentano's position on intentionality, the purpose of each mental act. Such a goal for Freud was the adaptation of man. This biological determination was one of the most important methodological principles of his theory, its core, explaining the importance of the forced socialization of the child, the need to give a socially acceptable form to sexual and aggressive drives. The disease in this concept is precisely the result of unsuccessful (or incomplete) adaptation.

Although these new trends existed in psychology, Freud, with his perseverance and authoritarianism, with his ambitions and neurotic experiences, with his difficult memories of childhood and adolescence, was needed to systematize them, creating a whole theory so that they could establish themselves in science. Without it, perhaps the concept of the unconscious, which, of course, would have been created, could not have gained such popularity, so quickly established itself in all countries. It would be different, more conformal, traditional in content. At the same time, Freud's intolerance, jealousy for any modifications led him to break with all students and followers. As a result, it is practically impossible to speak of Freudianism as a direction or a school, since the concepts of Jung, Adler, Horney, Rank and other scientists are quite independent.

Depth psychology, unlike behaviorism or Gestalt psychology, never became a school, but rather a set of separate theories of the unconscious. However, to some extent it also served to benefit psychoanalysis. Since each concept has become an original and original view of the unconscious and its role in the mental life of a person, laying the foundation for its own schools and retaining only a relative connection with the original theory.

However, despite the significant modernization of many of Freud's provisions, some of the methodological principles embodied in his theory have remained unchanged. These include the following provisions:

1) understanding of mental development as motivational, personal;

2) consideration of development as adaptation to the environment. Although the environment was subsequently not understood by other psychoanalysts as completely hostile, however, it always opposes a particular individual;

3) the driving forces of mental development are always innate and unconscious and represent mental energy given in the form of human drives or aspirations and striving for discharge (i.e. satisfaction);

4) the basic mechanisms of development, which are also innate, lay the foundations of the personality and its motives already in early childhood. Hence the interest of psychoanalysis in memories of early childhood and traumas received at this age.

The reason for the disagreement was some of the basic principles of Freud, which contradicted both the theoretical and practical, clinical conclusions of his followers. This is, first of all, Freud's pansexualism, which explained all human aspirations and cultural achievements only by sexual desires, while the facts showed that there were other equally important motives. Freud's reassessment of the role of biological determination to the detriment of cultural also provoked a protest. He practically did not take into account the role of social and individual differences, which also have a huge impact on the motivation of the individual. This led to the stereotyping of a person, turning him into a biological individual rather than a social subject with his own, different from others, spiritual world.

Freud considered the laws he discovered to be universal for all people and all peoples.

This applied both to the stages of personality development and to its structure, the content of unconscious drives, and the development of complexes. At the same time, the first studies have already shown that, for example, the Oedipus complex, which occupied a central place in Freud's concept, is determined more by social than biological factors, by the characteristics of upbringing adopted in a given culture, and by the relationship between parents and children in the family. This was already noticed by Jung and Adler, whose results on the study of childhood memories (including their own) differed significantly from Freud's experience. Adler, followed by other scientists, also came to the conclusion that in addition to sexual and aggressive, there are other, no less significant motives that can also become leading in the process of personality formation, for example, the desire to overcome one's inferiority.

Later, other factors appeared that contradicted Freud's provisions in the field of social psychology, and in the assessment of the female psyche, the role of the ego and in psychotherapeutic practice.

Freud's refusal to recognize the possible variability in conducting a psychoanalytic session led to his break even with such close students as W. Reich, O. Rank, who created their own psychotherapeutic concepts, although in theoretical terms they departed to a much lesser extent than Jung and Adler. from Freud.

The development of various corrective technologies in other directions (primarily in behaviorism), as well as new personality typologies built on the basis of biological and social differences, stimulated the overcoming of the average approach to a person and in depth psychology. This was also facilitated by the emergence of data from clinical practice, which testified to the inadmissibility of ignoring the activity and the client's own position.

These facts stimulated the modification of the basic postulates of directive therapy, making it less rigid and more individual.

If the clinical practice with which depth psychology began allowed for subjective and unvalidated ways of exploring the unconscious, then for scientific research it was necessary to standardize the methods, making them more accurate and objectively verifiable. This led to the development of projective techniques that have keys and exemplary standards for interpreting the material. In a short time, various types of such methods (figurative and verbal) appeared and became widespread, as well as the method of associative experiment proposed by Jung. The advantage of the new methods was not only greater objectivity, but also the ability to quickly obtain the desired data.

An important moment in the development of psychoanalysis was a change in approach to the problem of psychological defense. If in Freud the defense functioned as a reconciliation of the intrapersonal conflict (between the Id and the Super-Ego), then in the new theories of Horney, Fromm, Sullivan and other scientists it was also used in conflicts between the subject and the environment. Therefore, other manifestations are also included in the protection - such as conformism, aggression, withdrawal, sadism, etc.

The exteriorization of psychological defense, the idea that in the style of communication one can see the symptoms of neurotic experiences and ways to overcome them, contributed to the objectification of research and the development of new types of correction.

Significant discoveries in the psychology of personality, made in other directions, primarily in humanistic psychology, in the theories of social learning of behaviorism, have also interested psychoanalysts. Therefore, in A. Freud's ego psychology, more attention was paid to the conscious motives of a person, and in the theories of Sullivan and Berne - to contacts with significant others. Data on the development of motivation throughout a person's life, on the role of creativity in the general hierarchy of needs, led E. Erikson to revise the seemingly unshakable postulates of depth psychology associated with the role of the first years of life. Talking about crises in the process of becoming a person, he introduced into psychoanalysis a new idea for him (excluding Adler's theory) about the integrity of the individual, the need to realize one's identity with oneself and society. Thus, by the second half of the XX century. psychoanalysis gradually began to turn into a theory of personality, although initially it was more of a motivational theory of the individual.

The main provisions of Gestalt - psychotherapy:

1. Man is an integral being, any division into its component parts (eg mind and body) is artificial.

2. Man and his environment constitute a single gestalt, a structural whole, which is called the field organism - environment. The environment affects the body and the body transforms its environment, as well as in interpersonal relationships - the behavior of others affects us, if we change our behavior - then those around us are forced to change.

3. Human behavior is subject to the principle of formation and destruction of gestalts. Hunger - the search for food - the satisfaction of hunger - the completion of the gestalt and its destruction.

4. Contact - the basic concept of Gestalt - psychotherapy. Man cannot develop in an environment devoid of other people. All basic needs are met only in contact with the environment.

How much a person is able to satisfy his needs depends on how flexible he can regulate the contact boundary.

5. Awareness - awareness of what is happening inside the body and its environment. This is the experience of perception of the stimuli of the external world, the internal processes of the body and mental activity (ideas, images, memories, anticipation, fantasies). However, in the civilized world, people have hypertrophied thinking to the detriment of emotions and perception of the outside world. A huge number of human problems are due to the fact that a genuine awareness of reality is replaced by intellectual and often false ideas, for example, about what can be expected from people. How they treat me, etc. (in the words of F. Perzl - "Intuition is the mind of the body, and the intellect is the corrupt girl of the mind", "Drop the mind and get to your feelings"). Gestalt - psychotherapists assume that if people achieve a clear awareness of the internal and external reality, then they are able to solve all their problems on their own.

6. The principle of "here and now" - the actual for the body always occurs in the present, even if these are thoughts, memories of the past or future - they are all in the present moment.

7. Responsibility - the ability to be responsible for what is happening and choose your reactions. The more a person is aware of reality, the more he is able to be responsible for his life, to rely on himself.

The main goal of Gestalt-psychotherapy is to achieve, perhaps, a more complete self-awareness of the external world and, first of all, the world of interpersonal relationships.

4. Object, subject and functions of pedagogy. Object of Pedagogy

A.S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting "childless" pedagogy, in 1922 formulated the idea of the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is not true. The object of research of scientific pedagogy is "pedagogical fact (phenomenon)". In this case, the child, the person is not excluded from the attention of the researcher. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about a person, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have an individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system pedagogical phenomena associated with its development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

The subject of pedagogy.

Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. For example, an economist, studying the level of real possibilities of "labor resources" produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their preparation.

The sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who are able to adapt to the social environment, to promote scientific and technological progress and social transformation. The philosopher, in turn, applying a broader approach, asks the question about the goals and general purpose of education - what are they today and what should they be in the modern world? The psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of the state educational policy at a particular stage in the development of society, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not affect the essential aspects of education associated with the daily processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and with the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

The subject of pedagogy is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions(family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods for improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods for their interaction.

Functions of pedagogical science.

The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it implements in an organic unity.

The theoretical function of pedagogy is realized at three levels:

Descriptive or explanatory - the study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;

Diagnostic - revealing the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;

Prognostic - experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for the transformation of this reality.

The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with the disclosure of the essence of pedagogical phenomena, the finding of deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and the scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems are created that are ahead of educational practice.

The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:

Projective, associated with the development of appropriate methodological materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and determining the "normative or regulatory" plan of pedagogical activity, its content and nature;

Transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice in order to improve and reconstruct it;

Reflective and corrective, involving the assessment of the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practice.

5. System of methods and methodology of psychological research

a) In the system of methods of psychological research, an important place is occupied by the study of the products of activity, or, more precisely, the study of the mental characteristics of activity on the basis of the products of this activity. This method turns from a direct study of the flow of activity itself to the study of its products, in order to indirectly judge the psychological characteristics of the activity and, further, of the acting subject; therefore this method is sometimes called the method of indirect observation.

This method is widely used in historical psychology for the study of human psychology in long-gone historical times, inaccessible to direct observation or experimentation.

At the same time, we should not be talking about deriving - in the spirit of idealism - the patterns of development of culture from psychological patterns, but about understanding the patterns psychological development man, relying on the laws of his socio-historical development. In this, our understanding of this method fundamentally differs fundamentally from its essentially idealistic application, which it received, for example, in the ten-volume "Psychology of Peoples" by Wundt, who considered ideological formations as a projection of human psychology. Any attempt to psychologize social, ideological formations, reducing them to psychological patterns, is fundamentally untenable. Psychological analysis, proceeding from the objectively materialized products of human activity, should not replace the socio-historical method of studying them, but rely on it.

The products of children's creativity are widely and very fruitfully used in child psychology for the psychological study of the child. For example, the study of children's drawings has shed significant light on the characteristics of children's perception.

b) An essential link in the methodology of psychological research is a conversation planned by the researcher in accordance with the objectives of the research. Conversation is an auxiliary means for additional illumination of the internal flow of those processes that other objective methods, proceeding from external activity, study in their objective external manifestation. The conversation should not turn into an attempt to shift the solution of research problems from the researcher to the researcher. It can by no means be reduced to a simple recording of direct data from self-observation. The statements of the person being studied should be correlated with objective data, with the whole situation in which the conversation takes place, and be subject to indirect interpretation.

Questions asked in a conversation can (in the study of thinking, for example) be like tasks aimed at revealing the qualitative originality of the processes being studied. But at the same time, these tasks should be as natural and non-standard as possible. In a conversation, each subsequent question of the experimenter should be a new means that serves to indirectly determine those features of the internal operation that turned out to be ambiguous answers to the previous ones. Because of this, they need to vary from case to case. Each subsequent question should be posed taking into account the changed situation that was created as a result of the subject's answer to the previous question. Being planned, the conversation should not be of a template-standard nature; it should always be as personalized as possible. Observance of these conditions presents, of course, certain difficulties; it requires great skill on the part of the researcher, but only under these conditions will the conversation be fruitful.

Such a conversation must either precede or follow an objective study (through objective observation, experiment). She can, finally, both precede and follow him. But it must in any case be combined with other objective methods, and not become a self-sufficient method.

The conversation in psychology receives a different methodological design, depending on the difference in the initial attitudes of various researchers. Freud introduced a peculiar kind of psychoanalytic conversation for the purposes of psychoanalysis. Its task is to lead the interlocutor to the realization and overcoming of the drives repressed from consciousness.

Piaget's "clinical conversation" is another variant of conversation that has become quite widespread in child psychology. Piaget's clinical conversation was structured in such a way as to reveal the exclusively spontaneous representations of the child.

Our conversation includes a conscious and purposeful moment of the influence of the experimental and, in the study of the psychology of children, the pedagogical one.

Along with the above positive private methods of psychological research, in a review of the methods that were actually used in psychology, one cannot fail to mention the questionnaire and test methods in order to subject them to a special critical analysis. The question of questionnaires and tests became more acute with us in connection with the role that these methods played in the vicious and harmful "theory" and practice of pedologists.

c) The questionnaire method aims to collect material for solving a certain psychological problem by interviewing a certain circle of people according to a certain scheme. This scheme is fixed in the questionnaire or questionnaire. The data that is obtained through the questionnaire is not based for the most part on the systematic observation of the person who fills it out and does not allow any verification and differentiated analysis. Therefore, the conclusions that can be drawn from each questionnaire in relation to an individual have not the slightest scientific value.

The sphere of application of the questionnaire method is mainly mass phenomena of a more or less external order. So, by means of the questionnaire method, the reading or professional interests of a certain group of people can be examined.

If the coverage of the subjects in the questionnaire survey is wide, then its depth is insignificant.

It is absolutely impossible to use the questionnaire method to solve any deep psychological problems.

Questionnaires as a means of research are usually statistically processed and used to obtain statistical averages. But statistical averages, as is known, are of minimal value for research if they are obtained as a result of overlapping values that deviate significantly from this average, both in one direction and in the other. Such statistical averages do not express regularities. But in psychology, when studying the highest, most complex mental processes, for the most part, this is exactly the case. Therefore, questionnaires that serve to obtain such statistical averages are of no significant value for in-depth psychological research aimed at revealing psychological patterns.

Having originated in England (Galton's questionnaire in 1880), the questionnaire method in psychology has become especially widespread in America. On the part of European psychologists, he initially met with a negative attitude. Ribot wrote: "The questionnaire method relies on numbers. It is an application of universal suffrage to problems of psychology, and too often it differs little from those questions on all sorts of topics with which journalists address the general public." This was basically the attitude towards this method of a number of other prominent psychologists. Everyone pointed out that the questionnaire method is more suitable for establishing simple external facts than for posing complex psychological problems; it does not provide any reliable data for their resolution.

But the questionnaire method then nevertheless gained some distribution in the study of mass phenomena (shifts of interests, etc.).

The questionnaire method was unacceptably abused in pedological practice. They did not take into account the superficiality, and often the dubious nature of the data delivered by the questionnaires, the illegality of transferring the conclusions obtained as a result of statistical processing to a specific individual, and the grossly anti-pedagogical effect that the often completely unacceptable, meaningless questions of "pedological" questionnaires had on children. .

d) The question of tests is even more acute. The term "test" (test means in English "test" or "test") was introduced at the end of the last century by the American psychologist Kettel.

Tests have become widespread and practical since Binet, together with Simon, developed his own system of tests for determining the mental development or giftedness of children, and Munsterberg somewhat later (in 1910) began developing tests for the purpose of professional selection.

The Binet-Simon tests were then subjected to numerous revisions by Theremin (in America), Burt (in England), and others.

Tests in the proper sense of the word are tests that aim at grading, determining the rank place of an individual in a group or team, establishing its level. The test is aimed at personality; it should serve as a diagnostic tool for prognosis purposes.

The term "test" has recently received a more broad use, extending actually to any task given to the subject in the course of experimentation.

The method of tests in the original specific meaning of the word raises a number of very serious objections. The most important of them are the following.

When two individuals pass or fail the same test, then psychological significance This fact can be very different: the same achievement can be due to different mental processes. Therefore, the external fact of solving or not solving a test does not yet determine the internal nature of the corresponding mental acts.

The basis of the test method, which makes a diagnosis of a personality based on statistical processing of external data - the results of an individual solving certain tasks, is a mechanistic behavioral approach to personality. The test method attempts to diagnose a developing personality on the basis of a test, divorced from observing the process of its development and organizing this development through training and education.

This error is further aggravated when a prediction is made on the basis of the same test, assuming that the level established by the test at one stage of development will characterize the subject in the future. Thus, they accept the fatal predetermination of the entire further path of human development by existing conditions and, consciously or unconsciously, deny the possibility of reshaping a person: an adult - in the process of social practice, a child - in the process of training and education.

When the same standard tests are presented to different individuals who have gone through a different path of development, formed in different conditions, and on the basis of their decisions they directly conclude about the giftedness of the persons subjected to this test, then they make a clear mistake, namely, they do not take into account the dependence of the results on the conditions of development. . Two students or workers could perform differently on the tests because one of the students had less training and one of the workers had less training. But in the process of learning, the former can get ahead of the latter.

The fact that certain tests are solved by 75 percent of children of a given age in a certain class environment does not give reason to recognize them as an automatic criterion for determining the "giftedness" or mental development of children who are formed in completely different conditions.

To draw such a conclusion, which is the basis of the test methodology, means not to take into account the conditionality of the test results by the developmental conditions of those specific living people who were subjected to these tests.

It is precisely this anti-scientific approach to research methodology, expressed in the fact that the results of development are taken without regard to the conditions of development, that constitutes the theoretical basis for the politically reactionary conclusions of testology.

On the basis that the representatives of the enslaved nationalities or the exploited classes of capitalist society cope worse with tests adapted to verbal education, accessible in capitalist states only to representatives of the ruling class of the ruling nationality, bourgeois testologists have repeatedly concluded that the representatives of these classes and nationalities are inferior. But to draw such conclusions means not only revealing one's political reactionaryness, but also revealing a misunderstanding of one of the basic and elementary requirements of scientific thinking.

The unsatisfactoriness of this method is further aggravated by the fact that standard systems or test scales are used as a diagnostic tool and an attempt is made to stamp personality through tests, the very setting of which is based not on taking into account individual differences, but on neglecting them. Finally, it is impossible not to note the casuistic, sometimes provocative, content of test trials, which usually does not take into account the specific training of a given subject. Giving assignments that are not related to learning, they, however, claim - completely unjustifiably - that conclusions can be drawn from them specifically regarding the learnability of the subjects.

Criticism of test methods and questionnaires ultimately rests on the fundamental question, correct solution which should give a new direction to the whole methodology of our psychological research. It is essentially about understanding the personality and a specific approach to it in the process of research.

One of the main features of the methodology of modern foreign psychological science is its impersonal nature. In the process of research, a person becomes only a test subject for the experimenter, ceasing to be a person who has gone through a certain specific path of development, relates in a certain way to what happens in the experimental situation, and acts depending on this relationship. This direction of research turns out to be fundamentally untenable, especially where more complex mental manifestations of the personality are to be studied.

e) The genetic method is based on the idea that each phenomenon is known in its development.

This idea can receive two sharply different realizations: in the spirit of the evolutionist and in the spirit of the dialectical understanding of development.

If evolution is conceived as only a quantitative growth and complication, and not a qualitative restructuring, the higher, later forms in the evolutionary series differ from the previous ones only in complexity. In this case, the laws of higher, i.e. more complex forms can be studied at the lower ones, where they appear in a less complicated, and therefore more accessible form for study. That is why researchers who take this view shift the focus of research to infancy.

Therefore, in terms of comparative psychology, research is carried out primarily on the lower, elementary forms of the reflex behavior of animals, in order to mechanically transfer the patterns obtained there to the higher forms of human behavior. First, the laws of the higher ones are directly given in the least complicated and most accessible form for research. This is the main point of this technique. The central idea that underlies the evolutionary interpretation of the genetic method is as follows: the laws of behavior at all stages of development are the same; psychological laws are immutable, "eternal" laws.

The main idea of the dialectical understanding of the genetic method, on the contrary, says: the laws of psychology are not "eternal", they are historical laws; at each stage of development they are different. This is the great idea that Marx first formulated. Marx applied it to the study of social formations. It must also be carried out in psychology. The main position - phenomena are known in their development - receives a new profound meaning: the laws themselves do not represent something immovable, unchanging; each stage of development has its own laws. Equally illegitimate is the mechanical transfer of the laws of the lower levels to the higher ones, and the laws of the higher ones to the lower ones. With the transition to a new stage of development, not only phenomena change, but along with them the laws that determine them. One and the same phenomenon can obey different laws at different stages of development (Marx showed this by the example of the law of population increase in different social formations). The task of the genetic method is to reveal the changes in the very laws that occur in the process of development.

The explanation of these changes, which are changes in the psyche as a whole, requires the identification of objective conditions of development that go beyond the limits of the psyche. The genetic study of development not only of phenomena, but also of the laws that determine them, reveals the driving forces of development and determines its conditions.

The genesis and development of the psyche can also be studied in the course of the biological development of a given genus or species. The genetic method in this case is carried out in the form of a phylogenetic method.

The study of the psyche at the previous stages of phylogenetic development serves as a means of understanding the human psyche. Animal psychology - zoopsychology - is usually studied in this way of comparative psychology.

With regard to human psychology, the genetic method faces yet another task - to reveal the ways of development of the human psyche throughout the socio-historical development of mankind: the genetic method is carried out in the form of a historical method. Exploring the mental development of mankind, tracing the ways of the formation of complex processes (for example, speech, thinking) from their primitive to their modern, developed forms, he discovers the driving forces of mental development in changing social relations.

The genesis and development of the psyche can be studied in the process of development of an individual from birth to adulthood: the genetic method in this case is carried out in the form of an ontogenetic method. Thus, the development of the child's psyche serves as a means of understanding the psyche of an adult, and at the same time the child's psyche and the paths of its development are illuminated through the laws of more developed forms of the mature psyche.

Each of the stages of mental development, both in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, must be a real, dated formation, unambiguously related to objectively determined conditions, and not an abstract construction passing through abstract dialectics into another similar abstract construction: Marx's method should not be replaced Hegel's method.

f) The use of pathology, disorders of mental life for the knowledge of the regularities of the normal psyche has rendered great services to psychology in recent decades. Some of the authoritative modern psychologists have even asserted that "psychopathology over the past 50 years has been the main factor in progress in psychology."

Each function and process can also be studied in their pathological form: perception - on hallucinations and "spiritual blindness", memory - on "amnesias", speech - on aphasias, will - on abulias, etc.

At the same time, any pathological disorder is like a natural experiment, organized by nature itself. Turning off or changing any one function within a holistically functioning psyche, it thereby makes it possible, as it were, to experimentally establish the role of this function within the whole, its connection with other functions and their interdependence. Thus, psychopathological research recent years(G. Head (Head), A. Gelb, K. Goldstein and others), revealing the exceptional depth of the connection between speech disorders (aphasia), cognition (agnosia) and action (apraxia), shed bright light on the relationship of speech, cognition and actions in their normal form.

However, no matter how great the importance of psychopathology for psychology, one should not exaggerate it and mechanically transfer the results obtained on pathological material to the normal psyche. If one function is violated, the entire psyche of the patient is modified. This means that the relationship between the functions in the psyche of a sick person is different than in a healthy person. Therefore, it is completely wrong to identify the earlier forms of the psyche, which took place in the process of historical or individual development, with the disintegration of higher forms resulting from pathological disorders. The similarities which can thus be established between the sick and the healthy mind are often superficial and always partial. In particular, attempts to define or characterize the psychological characteristics of the ages preceding maturity by means of parallels with some pathological forms are fundamentally flawed (as Kretschmer, for example, did especially in relation to adolescence).

Similar Documents

The subject of special pedagogy and psychology. Psychology of the blind, deaf, mentally retarded and persons with speech disorders, pathopsychology. A system of special pedagogical measures aimed at weakening or overcoming developmental defects.

abstract, added 08/27/2009

The subject of psychology and pedagogy. Characteristics of the main views on the psyche and its role. Structural Components personality. Methods of diagnosing the motivational-need sphere of personality. Cognitive processes of personality: sensation and perception, memory.

training manual, added 03/20/2011

Subject, tasks of psychology, its principles and methods and history of development. Functions and components of the psyche. Mental cognitive processes of man. Methodology and methods of pedagogical research. Types of education. Theoretical foundations and principles of teaching.

course of lectures, added 01/18/2009

The subject and structure of educational psychology. Identification, study and description psychological features and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities, educational process.

abstract, added 09/19/2009

Pedagogical psychology as a borderline, complex field of knowledge. The relationship of pedagogy and psychology. Approaches to the definition of the subject, its main problems and tasks. The structure of educational psychology: the psychology of learning, education and teachers.

presentation, added 07/12/2011

The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Subject, object and methods of psychology. The structure of modern psychology. Causes and patterns of human actions, laws of behavior in society. The relationship of psychology and philosophy. The difference between everyday psychology and scientific.

term paper, added 07/28/2012

Historical transformation of the definitions of the subject of psychology. The subject of the study of psychology. Natural science foundations of psychology. Methods of research in psychology. General and special branches of psychology. Methods of studying psychological phenomena.

lecture, added 02/14/2007

Object, subject and tasks of psychology. Psyche and consciousness. Biological and social in man. Feeling as a mental process. Perception, its types and properties. Classification of mental states. Pedagogical activity as the creation of personality.

tutorial, added 01/13/2009

The essential characteristic of educational psychology as an independent science. Subject and tasks, meaning, structure and principles of pedagogical psychology. Using the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice.

term paper, added 02/27/2009

Definition of psychology as a scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and the practical application of the knowledge gained. Psychology as a science. The subject of psychology. Communication of psychology with other sciences. Methods of research in psychology.

Recall that, according to the studies of B. G. Ananiev, it is customary in psychology to distinguish four main groups methods of psychological research:

1)organizational methods(comparative, longitudinal (traces the formation, development of the phenomenon under study for several years), complex);

2) empirical methods: but) observational methods(observation and self-observation); b) experimental methods(laboratory, field, natural, formative or, according to B. G. Ananiev, psychological and pedagogical); in) psychodiagnostic methods(standardized and projective tests, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews and conversation); G) praximetric methods, according to B. G. Ananiev, techniques for analyzing processes and products of activity (chronometry, cyclography, professional description, evaluation of work); e) simulation method(mathematical, cybernetic, etc.) and e) biographical methods(analysis of facts, dates, events, evidence of human life);

3) data processing: methods of quantitative (mathematical-statistical) and qualitative analysis;

4) interpretation methods: including genetic And structural method.

In the practical activities of each individual teacher, the main ones are observation and conversation, followed by an analysis of the products of the students' educational activities. Observation- the main empirical method of purposeful systematic study of a person. The observed may not know that he is the object of observation. Observation is implemented using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:

a) the choice of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed; b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties, features of the object that will be recorded; c) a way of fixing the received information.

When observing, a number of requirements must be met: the presence of an observation plan, a set of features, indicators that must be recorded and evaluated by the observer, preferably several expert observers whose estimates can be compared, building a hypothesis explaining the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations. Based on the observation, an expert assessment can be given. The results of observations are recorded in special protocols, certain indicators and signs are distinguished, which should be identified during observation in the behavior of the subjects according to the observation plan. Protocol data are subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.

Conversation- an empirical method of obtaining information about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions, which is widespread in educational psychology and in pedagogical practice. Answers are recorded either by tape recording or by stenography. The conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since the teacher or researcher subjectively evaluates the answers, the behavior of the student, while his behavior, facial expressions, gestures, questions affect the student, causing a certain degree of openness and trust-mistrust of the subject.

Questionnaire- an empirical method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that make up the questionnaire. Preparation of the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

In educational psychology, it is used activity product analysis method. This is the most common research method in pedagogical practice. Purposeful, systematic analysis of essays, presentations, texts of oral and written messages (answers) of students, that is, the content, form of these messages, contributes to the teacher's understanding of the personal and educational orientation of students, the depth and accuracy of mastering the subject, their attitude to learning, school, institute, the subject itself and teachers. With regard to the study of personal, individual psychological characteristics of students or their activities, the method of generalization of independent variables is used, which requires the generalization of the data of one student received from different teachers. It is possible and should generalize only the data obtained in different conditions, in the study of personality in various activities. “The goal of any experimental study– make sure that conclusions based on a limited amount of data remain valid outside of the experiment. It's called generalization."

Testing- psychodiagnostic methods of using standardized test methods to identify and quantify the level of development of cognitive, intellectual, typological and personal characteristics of students and teachers, the structure of interpersonal relationships and interaction in teams. Tests are developed by professional psychologists. Approved tests with high reliability and validity, including standardized rules for testing and processing, interpreting the data obtained, can be used by teachers, school psychologists after preliminary training and mastery of test methods.

Test reliability indicates that the test is capable of detecting stable psychological characteristics of a person And resistant to random factors, therefore, the test results remain largely unchanged when the same person is retested under different conditions, at long intervals. Test validity shows that the test is able to detect precisely those parameters, for which it claims, capable have predictive value.

In pedagogical practice, special tests of educational and professional achievements are also used, which measure the level of knowledge, skills, effectiveness of programs and the learning process. Achievement tests are test batteries covering curriculums for holistic educational systems, all tasks are given in the form of questions with multiple choice answers. They are considered as a means of objective assessment and a tool for correcting curricula.

Experiment- the main empirical method of scientific research, has been widely used in educational psychology. During the experiment, the experimenter acts on the object under study in accordance with the hypothesis of the study.

Any kind of experiment includes the following stages: 1) goal setting: concretization of the hypothesis in a specific task; 2) planning the course of the experiment; 3) conducting an experiment: collecting data; 4) analysis of the obtained experimental data; 5) conclusions that allow us to draw experimental data.

Varies laboratory And natural experiment. In a laboratory experiment, the subjects know that a certain test is being carried out on them, and a natural experiment takes place under normal conditions of work, study, and people's life, and people do not suspect that they are participants in the experiment. Both laboratory and natural experiments are divided into ascertaining and psychological-pedagogical formative experiment.

Ascertaining experiment It is used in those cases when it is necessary to establish the actual state of already existing phenomena. During formative experiment changes in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, abilities and personal development of students under targeted educational and educational influence are studied. The experimenter determines the purpose of the study, puts forward a hypothesis, changes the conditions and forms of influence, strictly fixes the results of the experiment in special protocols. The experimental data are processed by methods of mathematical statistics (correlation, rank, factor analysis, etc.).

The formative experiment in the behavioral approach to learning is focused on identifying the conditions that make it possible to obtain the required specified reaction of the student. The formative experiment in the activity approach assumes that the experimenter must identify the objective composition of the activity that he is going to form, develop methods for forming the indicative, executive and control part of the activity.

Among the methods aimed at studying the labor activity of a person, it is widely used professiography method–descriptive-technical and psychophysiological characteristics of a person's professional activity. This method is focused on the collection, description, analysis, systematization of material about professional activities and its organization from different angles. As a result of professiogramming, professiograms or summaries of data (technical, sanitary-hygienic, technological, psychological, psychophysiological) about a specific labor process and its organization, as well as psychograms professions. Psychograms are a "portrait" of the profession, compiled on the basis of a psychological analysis of a specific labor activity, which includes professionally important qualities (PVK) and psychological and psychophysiological components that are updated by this activity and ensure its execution. The importance of the professiography method in the psychology of vocational education is explained by the fact that it allows modeling the content and methods of forming professionally important personality traits, given by a particular profession, and building the process of their development based on scientific data.

Based on such methodological principles of psychology as consistency, complexity, the principle of development, as well as the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, educational psychology in each specific study applies set of methods(private methods and research procedures). but one of the methods always speaks as the main, but others are additional. Most often, in a purposeful study, as already noted, the formative (teaching) experiment acts as the main one in educational psychology, and additional to it are observation, self-observation, conversation, analysis of activity products, testing.

It should be noted that any psychological and pedagogical research includes at least four main stage:

1) preparatory(acquaintance with the literature, setting goals, putting forward hypotheses based on the study of literature on the research problem, planning),

2) proper research(for example, experimental and sociometric),

3) stage of quality And quantitative analysis(processing) the received data;

4) interpretation stage, actually generalizations, establishing the causes, factors that determine the characteristics of the flow of the phenomenon under study.

In psychology, including pedagogical psychology, two methodological approaches to the study of man have developed to date: natural science and humanitarian (psychotechnical).

The natural science approach is aimed at building a true picture of what is happening, the knowledge of objective, general laws of nature. The psychologist takes the position of a detached researcher who does not influence what is happening with the object under study. The influence of one's own attitude to what is happening, the values recognized by the researcher are excluded. Various typologies, classifications are the result of using mathematical methods for processing results.

The humanitarian approach focuses on the most essential manifestations of human nature: values, meanings, freedom, responsibility. For this approach, the most important thing is not so much the understanding of psychological laws and facts, but the attitude of a person to these facts, the meanings that he gives them. In humanitarian knowledge, the emphasis shifts from identifying general patterns to the search for the individual, the special. In addition, the humanitarian approach recognizes the complexity, inconsistency and variability of human existence.

Pedagogical psychology as a science needs the accumulation of empirical data, their systematization and explanation. To do this, within the framework of the natural science paradigm, two research strategies have been formed:

observation strategy, ensuring the collection of data in the context of the task set by the researcher, the accumulation of empirical material in order to further describe the patterns of the observed process or phenomenon;

strategy of natural science ascertaining experiment, which allows you to detect a phenomenon or process under controlled conditions, measure its quantitative characteristics and give a qualitative description. The child, the teacher or the parent are here for the psychologist as an object of study, the subject. The research program is formed in advance, the influence of the psychologist on the process under study should be minimized;

third formation strategy This or that process with given properties implies active interaction of a psychologist with another person. The emergence of this strategy is due to the fact that modern educational psychology is becoming the science is not about the established personal consciousness of a person, but about the consciousness that is becoming, developing, the consciousness of a spiritually growing person, making an effort and work for his development. The procedures used to implement this strategy are flexible, depending on the specifics of the interaction. The psychologist shows interest in what is happening. For the implementation of the third strategy, the skills of a psychologist are especially important. interpret, understand, reflect, problematize and enter into a dialogue with another person.

Interpretation. Each language is based on some conceptual configurators, which we conventionally called "interpretative schemes". Facts placed in personal interpretation schemes take on different meanings. The possibility of entering into the semantic field of another leads to understanding by people of each other.

Understanding is interpreted as the art of "grasping" the meanings of communication, people's actions, facts and events that arise in the context of a particular situation.

According to the ideas of A.A. Verbitsky, a person exists in various contexts (objective and subjective). The integration of many meaning-forming contexts forms a subjective picture in the process of human interaction with the world. The latter mediates a person's perception of the world and himself in it, influences the choice of actions, acting as a more "objective" factor than the objective characteristics of the situation.

Understanding is of an active-dialogical nature, and meaning is generated in the joint activity and communication of a psychologist with another person.

Among the techniques that can be used to organize understanding are:

Reducing the complex to the simple, isolating the basic idea and feelings;

Establishment of relations of assistance, cooperation, empathy of a psychologist between two subjects;

Work according to the rules of maieutics to expand the field of possible meanings, i.e., raising questions of such a level of uncertainty that would stimulate the “natural” processes of expanding the semantic field;

Techniques of "cultivating meanings" as a repetition of the main idea, interpretation of what was said, the use of questions to clarify, deepen the meaning, put forward hypotheses about the meaning of what was said.

The most important condition for understanding is the consideration of the presented meaning as the author's, i.e. as offered by the speaker, and not introduced by the listener.

understanding is related to reflection , which is one of the mechanisms of understanding oneself and one's being. The task of the psychologist is to help the other to enter a reflective position, that is, to “suspend” the continuous process of life and take it beyond its limits. Misunderstanding in communication, the inability to deeply and fully characterize one's situation lead to a reflexive exit.

Dialog is understood as an introduction to a different meaning-life space, which is not limited to linguistic interaction and does not lead to the search for truth, but clarifies the spiritual dimensions of existence.

Problematization is understood as a mental technique, consisting in the requirement to explain, justify what, why and in connection with what the other asserts. Due to problematization, the productivity and quality of judgments sharply increase, the skills of searching, working out and building the foundations of one's statements and actions are formed.

Methods that implement the third strategy are called methods of practical psychology by some authors. These include:

psychological consultation, psychological correction, psychotherapy, psychotraining, the method of gradual formation of mental actions, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Exploring the features of the formation of cognitive processes, scientists managed to develop approaches to their formation. Thus, two tasks were simultaneously solved - research and formation. Methods that have traditionally been used in educational psychology for diagnostic purposes have a high corrective potential. Thus, a child's drawing, on the one hand, can only be used as a diagnostic tool. On the other hand, it is a well-established method of psychological correction.

In the work of a school psychologist, the developing potential of the method is important, that is, the possibility of obtaining a developing effect in the process of the examination itself and building developmental programs on its basis. The psychologist-practitioner is not interested in conducting only an examination. It is more important for him to use the method with maximum benefit for corrective and developmental work.

The principles of construction and organization of psychodiagnostic activities of a psychologist at school include:

compliance of the chosen approach and specific methodology with the goals and objectives of effective psychological support for the child;

survey results should be formulated in a language understandable to others or be easily translated into a language understood by others;

the predictive nature of the methods used, i.e., the ability to predict, on their basis, the features of the development of the child at further stages of education and upbringing;

high developing potential of the method;

economy of the procedure. A good methodology should be a short, multifunctional procedure that exists both in an individual and group version, easy to process and, if possible, unambiguous in the evaluation of the data obtained.

The actions of a psychologist in organizing any impact on a child must be agreed with the parents. The decision on the presence of parents at the psychological examination should be decided individually. During the diagnostic examination of preschoolers and younger schoolchildren, the presence of parents is desirable. This will help parents to see the characteristics of the child, and it will be easier for the psychologist to work on discussing the results of the diagnosis. In addition, the reactions of parents to what is happening provide the psychologist with additional material about the characteristics of relationships in the family.

At an older age, if the child does not object, the examination can be carried out without parents. But in any case, you must obtain written permission from the parents to conduct the survey.

Characteristics of methods

The main methods of educational psychology are as follows.

Observation - purposeful, specially organized and fixed perception of the object under study. Observation allows you to identify the psychological characteristics of a child, teacher or parent in natural conditions for them. A child can be observed during a lesson or a game with peers, a parent can be observed during a holiday organized in the classroom, and the observer must rely on objectively observed parameters of behavior, and not interpret them.

observation errors, related to the personality of the observer:

The "halo effect" is associated with the observer's tendency to generalize the behavior of the observed. Thus, observation of a child during lessons is transferred to his behavior in general;

the error of "false consent" consists in the fact that the observer, in evaluating behavior, follows the opinion of others that has developed about him ("everyone says so");

the “average trend” error is associated with a tendency to focus on typical, “statistically average” behavioral manifestations for each person, and not different from the usual forms (the idea that boys are on average more active and energetic than girls can affect the course of observation of characteristics of the relationship of children of different sexes);

The “first impression” error is the result of the transfer of the prevailing stereotypes of perception to the observed person.

To avoid these errors, it is desirable to observe the behavior of a particular person for a long time, to compare your data with the results of observations of other people.

The observer must have a good idea of what, for what and how he is going to observe: a program must be created, the parameters of the observed behavior, methods of fixation must be determined. Otherwise, it will record random facts.

A variety of observation are diaries that parents and teachers can keep, describing the features of the development of children, their relationships with others. A psychologist can obtain valuable material from diary entries and self-reports conducted by participants in trainings and personal growth groups.

Introspection is a kind of observation and involves the study of the psyche on the basis of observation of one's own mental phenomena. To conduct it, the subject must have a high level of abstract logical thinking and the ability to reflect. Preschool children will more easily draw their condition than they will talk about it.

Experiment - a method of collecting facts in controlled and managed conditions that ensure the active manifestation of the studied mental phenomena.

By form of allocate natural and laboratory experiment. A natural experiment was proposed by A.F. Lazursky in 1910 at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out in the conditions of the activity habitual for the subject (in the classroom, in the game). The teacher can widely use this method in his work. In particular, by changing the forms and methods of teaching, it is possible to identify how they affect the assimilation of the material, the features of its understanding and memorization. Such well-known teachers in our country as V.A. Sukhomlinsky, A.S. Makarenko, Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, E.A. Yamburg and others have achieved high results in the education and upbringing of children through experimentation and the creation of innovative platforms in education.

The laboratory experiment is carried out in specially created conditions. In particular, the features of cognitive processes (memory, thinking, perception, etc.) can be studied using specially designed equipment. In pedagogical psychology, this type of experiment is practically not used, since there is a problem of transferring the data obtained in the laboratory into real pedagogical practice.

By goals holding allocate ascertaining and forming experiment. The purpose of the ascertaining experiment is to measure the current level of development (for example, the level of development of abstract-logical thinking, the degree of formation of moral ideas). In this case, tests are a kind of ascertaining experiment. The data obtained form the basis of the formative experiment.

The formative experiment is aimed at active transformation, development of certain aspects of the psyche. Thanks to the experimental genetic method created by L.S. Vygotsky, it became possible not only to identify the qualitative features of the development of higher mental functions, but also to purposefully influence their formation. As part of the formative experiment, the possibility of developing scientific and theoretical thinking in junior schoolchildren was proved, conditions were created for intensive study foreign language ensured the convergence of educational and professional activities.

A special form of experiment is research using tests. Tests are standardized tasks designed to measure in comparable terms the individual psychological properties of a person, as well as knowledge, skills and abilities. In pedagogical practice, tests began to be used for the first time in 1864 in Great Britain to test the knowledge of students. At the end of the XIX century. F. Galton, the founder of testology, developed a number of tasks to assess the individual characteristics of a person. The term "test" was introduced by the American psychologist J. M. Cattell (1890). He created a series of tests aimed at determining the level of intellectual development. Known scales created by A. Binet in 1905 to examine children aged 3-11 years. The scale included 30 tasks of varying difficulty and was intended for the diagnosis of mental retardation. In 1911, V. Stern introduced the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ), the measurement of which remains one of the goals of testing.

In Russia, tests began to be used at the beginning of the 20th century. A.P. Boltunov in 1928 created a "measuring scale of the mind" based on the scale of A. Binet.

Currently, tests are used in the system of professional selection, in pathopsychological diagnostics, to determine the level of a child’s readiness to enter school, to identify the features of the formation of cognitive processes and personality traits (at the stage of adaptation to schooling, during the transition to the middle level, when examining high school students ). Testing can be used to identify the psychological characteristics of a child who has difficulties in communication, learning, etc. The psychologist can offer the teacher to undergo psychological testing to identify his psychological characteristics. These data will help the psychologist in carrying out consulting work.

The quality of a test is determined by its reliability (stability of test results), validity (correspondence of the test to the goals of diagnostics), differentiating power of the task (the ability of the test to subdivide the test subjects according to the severity of the studied characteristic).

The types of tests are projective tests, the peculiarity of which lies in the study of personal characteristics by involuntary reactions (the generation of free associations, the interpretation of random configurations, the description of pictures with an indefinite plot, drawing on a topic).

The free association test can be done under the guise of a "think aloud" game. The experimenter gives a certain word, and the child names ten associations that come to his mind in connection with this word. First, several camouflage stimulus words are presented, and then meaningful words are called, such as “your father”, “your mother”, etc.

Using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) can help gather information about the child's relationships with others. A set of plot and non-plot pictures in black and white allows the subjects, depending on the level of development of thinking, speech, feelings and on the basis of previous life experience (apperception), to interpret the depicted situation in different ways. The experimenter, using such a test, can solve diagnostic and corrective tasks, discussing with the subject the questions: “Who is shown in the picture? What is happening in the picture? What do the characters in the picture think and feel? What led to what happened? What will happen?".

The most common method used by an educational psychologist is drawing techniques. Yet in 1914 prof. A. Lazursky tried to use drawing lessons to study the child's personality. These techniques became most popular in the 1950s. Currently, drawing tests are used "House - tree - man", "Self-portrait", "Constructive drawing of a man from geometric shapes”, “Picture of the world”, “Free drawing”, “Drawing of a family”.

Some psychologists use drawing in psychological diagnostics, based on the following principles:

Creating a pattern, the occurrence of which could be observed;

Classification of the pattern in terms of the level of development and in terms of unusual features;

Considering a drawing as a result of multifunctional activity. This activity can be a projection field of intense experiences;

By the principle that more errors in psychological diagnosis were caused by an exaggerated projective interpretation than by an omission of a projective interpretation.

The drawing should not be used as the sole starting point for projective interpretation.

Projective tendencies should be verified through research, comparison with the results of further tests, in conversation with parents, etc.

Drawing can be an indicator not only of creative abilities, but also of pathological processes (functional and organic).

The main aspects of interpreting the family drawing include: a) the structure of the family drawing; b) features of the drawn family members; c) the drawing process.

The method of studying the products of activity allows you to collect facts based on the analysis of materialized products of mental activity. The researcher, using this method, does not deal with the person himself, but with the material products of his activity: educational (composition, solved problem), play (the plot of a game invented by a child, a house built from cubes), creative (poems, stories, fairy tales). When implementing this method, it is important to try to reproduce the manufacturing process of the product and thereby reveal the personality traits.

Requirements for the method: 1) analyzing the products of activity, it should be established whether they are the result of a typical activity characteristic of a given person or created by chance; 2) it is necessary to know in what conditions the activity took place; 3) analyze not single, but many products of activity.

Poll method provides information in the process of direct (conversation, interview) or indirect (questionnaire, survey) communication. For the competent conduct of surveys and interviews, it is important to clearly formulate the questions, so that they are unambiguously understood by the subjects. In psychology, rules have been developed for compiling questions (open and closed), placing them in the right order, and grouping them into separate blocks. The most common errors in the preparation of questionnaires and questionnaires are the following: words are used that are scientific terms or incomprehensible to the respondent; non-specific and general concepts are used as characteristic values (“often - rarely”, “many - few”), they should be specified (regularly - “once a week”, “once a month”, “once a year”, etc. .); the psychologist tries to captivate the respondent by offering unequal answers or using slang.

To conduct a conversation, an atmosphere of trust between the psychologist and the person he is interviewing is important. It is necessary to know the rules for establishing contact, to master the techniques of effective communication, ways of accommodating the interlocutor.

Sociometry- method of studying the characteristics of interpersonal relationships in small groups. It consists in the fact that the main measuring technique is a question, answering which each member of the group shows his attitude towards others. The results are recorded on a sociogram - a graph on which the arrows indicate the selections (rejections) of group members, or in a table in which the number of choices received by each member of the group is calculated. A positive status characterizes the leadership position of a group member. Negative - disorganizing tendencies in the behavior of the individual. Group and individual forms of sociometry are used, as well as modifications in the form of a game, drawing tests, etc.

biographical method- collection and analysis of data on the life path of the individual. The study of the life style and personality scenario (genogram method, analysis of early childhood memories) can be used to identify the features of the formation of a child's life style. This method carries a large therapeutic and corrective load both in terms of individual and group counseling.

A genogram is a form of family pedigree that records information about family members for at least three generations. A genogram shows family information graphically, allowing you to quickly visualize complex family patterns. The genogram also serves as a source of hypotheses about how current issues relate to family context and development over time.

The analysis of early childhood memories is aimed at identifying the current life style of the individual. The psychologist offers to describe in as much detail as possible several of the earliest childhood memories and try to give them a name, starting with phrases like "My life is ...", "To live means ...". When carrying out the technique, it is important to fix attention on the details of memories, on the emotional attitude to what is happening in childhood, to the characteristics of the people represented in the memory.

Within the framework of transactional analysis, procedures for studying a life scenario are proposed. The psychologist stimulates, during the conversation with the subject, the discussion of such questions as: “Who were you named after? What kind of child were you in the family (first, second ...) and how did the second child affect you? What proverbs or sayings can reflect the values your family stands for? How did your parents plan your future? etc.

Mathematical Methods in Psychological and Pedagogical Research are used as auxiliary in planning and processing the results of the experiment, test surveys, questionnaires and surveys.

Methods of providing psychological assistance and support subjects of the educational process are aimed at creating conditions for the holistic psychological development of schoolchildren and at solving specific problems that arise in the development process. These include: active social learning (training), individual and group counseling, psychological correction.

Active social learning (training) - this is a set of methods aimed at developing knowledge, social attitudes, skills and abilities of self-knowledge and self-regulation, communication and interpersonal interaction. The techniques used by the psychologist during the training: role-playing, group discussion, psycho-gymnastics, training of behavioral skills, situation analysis, elements of psychodiagnostics, etc. Audio and video equipment can be used to receive feedback from the training participants. To date, the arsenal of educational psychology has accumulated a large number of active social learning programs that ensure the work of a psychologist with children, with teachers and parents.

aim psychological counseling is a culturally productive person with a sense of perspective, acting consciously, able to develop various behavioral strategies and analyze the situation from different points of view. When consulting a school as an organization, the psychologist is focused on optimizing organizational and managerial structures. The psychologist can act as an organizational development consultant, directing his actions to change social relations, people's attitudes and the structure of the organization in order to improve its functioning and ensure development. Counseling can be done on an individual or group forms. The methodological and theoretical preparedness of the psychologist, orientation in the main approaches to understanding the goals and means of counseling, the specifics of the stated problem determine the basis of his work with a person or group. In the practice of a school psychologist, behavioral, transactional, humanistic and cognitive-oriented approaches, elements of Gestalt therapy, psychosynthesis, and body-oriented therapy are most successfully used.

Psychological correction - directed psychological impact on certain psychological structures in order to ensure the full development and functioning of the individual. In the arsenal of school psychologists there are many programs aimed at developing and correcting the cognitive area of students, the emotional and personal sphere.

Questions and tasks

1. What general psychological methods are used in educational psychology?

2. What strategies of psychological and pedagogical research do you know?

3. Name the methods of psychological support and support that a school psychologist can use.

4. Conduct a psychodiagnostic examination of the child and his relationship to the family using the "Family Drawing" method. Think over the instructions, the order of the study, the methods of interpretation.

5. During the interview when the child enters the first grade, parents are present. Whenever the child hesitates to answer or makes a mistake, the mother behaves very unrestrainedly: prompts the child, pushes him, loudly indignant at the difficulty of the tasks. How should a psychologist behave in this case?

Seminar Plan

"Principles and methods of educational psychology"

1. Humanitarian ideals of scientific character and principles of pedagogical psychology.

2. Research strategy and formation strategy.

3. Principles of constructing the psychodiagnostic work of a school psychologist.

4. Methods of psychological help and support.

Main literature

1. Bityanova M.R. Organization of psychological service at school. M., 1998.

2. Gilbukh Yu.Z. Psychodiagnostics at school. M., 1989.

3. Loseva V.K. Drawing a family: diagnostics of family relationships. M., 1995.

4. Orlov A.B. Methods of modern developmental and pedagogical psychology. M., 1982.

5. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Human's psychology. Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity. M., 1995.

6. Shvantsara I. Diagnostics of mental development. Prague, 1998.

additional literature

7. Vasilyuk F.E. From psychological practice to psychotechnical theory // Moscow Journal of Psychotherapy. 1992. M 1.

8. James M., Jongward D. Born to win. M., 1993.

9. Klyueva N.V., Kasatkina Yu.V. We teach children how to communicate. Yaroslavl, 1996.

10. Practical psychology of education / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1997.

11. Rogov E.I. Handbook of practical psychologist in education. M., 1995.

12. Subbotina L.Yu. The development of imagination in children. Yaroslavl, 1996.

13. Tikhomirova L.F., Basov A.V. Development of logical thinking of children. Yaroslavl, 1995.

14. Romanova E.S., Potemkina O.F. Projective methods in psychological diagnostics. M., 1991.

15. Stepanov S.S. Diagnosis of intelligence by the method of drawing test. M., 1997.

16. Cheremoshkina L.V. Development of children's memory. Yaroslavl, 1997.

17. Chernikov A. Genogram and categories of family life analysis. // Psychological consultation. 1997. Issue. one.

Similar information.

In psychology, as in other sciences, a certain set of research methods (techniques) is used to obtain facts, process and explain them.

All methods used in psychological research can be divided into four groups:

1) organizational methods; 2) empirical methods of obtaining scientific data; 3) data processing techniques; 4) interpretive methods.

Organizational Methods

Comparative method- (the "cross section" method) consists in comparing different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication. For example, two large groups of people of the same age and sex (students and workers) are studied by the same empirical methods of obtaining scientific data, and the data obtained are compared with each other.

Longitudinal method(the "longitudinal cut" method) consists in multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time. For example, multiple examinations of students throughout the entire period of study at the university.

Complex method- a method of study in which representatives of various sciences participate in the study, which allows you to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, the physiological, mental and social development of the individual.

empirical methods

Observation(external) - a method consisting in a deliberate, systematic, purposeful and fixed perception of external manifestations of the psyche.

Introspection(introspection) - a person's observation of his own mental phenomena.

Experimental Methods

Experiment differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates some factors and registers the corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the subject.

Laboratory experiment It is carried out in artificial conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment, with strict control of all influencing factors.

natural experiment- a psychological experiment included in an activity or communication unnoticed by the subject.

Formative (training) experiment - a method of research and formation of a mental process, state or quality of a person.

Psychodiagnostic methods

Test- a system of tasks that measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person.

Achievement Tests- one of the methods of psychodiagnostics, which allows to identify the degree of possession of the subject of specific knowledge, skills, abilities.

Intelligence Tests- a method of psychodiagnostics to identify the mental potential of the individual.

Creativity tests- a set of methods for studying and evaluating creative abilities.

personality tests- a method of psychodiagnostics for measuring various aspects of an individual's personality.

Questionnaire- a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information based on verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions.

Sociometry- a method of psychological research of interpersonal relations in a group in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility.

Interview- a method of social psychology, which consists in collecting information obtained in the form of answers to the questions posed, as a rule, pre-formulated.

Conversation- a method that provides for the direct or indirect receipt of psychological information through verbal communication.

The effective application of the empirical method depends on the extent to which it valid(corresponds to what it was originally intended to receive and evaluate) and reliable(allows you to get the same results with repeated and repeated use).

FEEL

Feel is a reflection of specific, individual properties, qualities, aspects of objects and phenomena of material reality that affect the senses at a given moment.

A person receives all information about the world around him only through a variety of sensations.

A person who is not able to see is unlikely to be able to imagine what light and color are in the way that a sighted person is able to imagine and feel. A deaf person is unable to imagine and perceive the sounds of music and the subtle nuances of the human voice in the same way that a well-hearing person can.

Thus, when they say that sensations are the main source of human knowledge, this means that, without sensations, a person would not have consciousness either (in it, various sensations are mainly represented).

The information reception structure includes the following steps:

R OCH N GM OSH CV EP OP M OS VN

An irritant (auditory, visual) R affects the sense organs (SP), resulting in nerve impulses (NI) that enter the brain (GM) through the nerve pathways, are processed there and separate sensations (OS) are formed, based on which a holistic image of perception (CV) of an object is formed, which is compared with memory standards (EP), as a result of which the object is identified (OP), and then, with a mental comparison of current information and previous experience, through mental activity (M) comprehension occurs ( OS), understanding of information. Attention (AT) should be directed to the reception and understanding of information.

Numerous observations have shown that impaired information flow in early childhood, associated with deafness and blindness, causes severe delays in mental development.

For the emergence of sensations, it is necessary first of all to have objects and phenomena of the real world affecting the sense organs, which in this case are called stimuli. The effect of stimuli on the sense organs is called irritation. In the nervous tissue, the process of irritation causes excitation. Excitation of the systems of nerve cells (the most perfect in their organization) with the obligatory participation of the cells of the cerebral cortex and gives a sensation.

There are five main types of human sensations- these are visual, auditory, tactile, muscular, olfactory and gustatory, distinguished by Aristotle.

tactile are called sensations, diverse in their quality, obtained directly from the surface of the skin. These include sensations of touch, pressure, heat, cold, movement on the surface of the skin, and a number of others. Muscular- These are specific sensations that occur when the muscles are tensed or relaxed. Olfactory are the sensations we usually call smells.

Now there are much more types of sensations. So, in the composition of touch, along with tactile sensations (touch), there is an independent type of sensation - temperature. Intermediate between tactile and auditory sensations is occupied by vibrational sensations. Sensations of acceleration and balance are singled out as a separate type of sensations. Pain sensations are common to different analyzers, signaling the destructive power of the stimulus.

Feeling properties.

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization.

Quality- this is the main feature of this sensation, which distinguishes it from other types of sensations and varies within this type of sensation. The qualitative variety of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of motion of matter.

Intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Duration sensation is its temporal characteristic. It is also determined by the functional state of the sense organ, but mainly by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. When an irritant is exposed to a sensory organ, sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time - the so-called latent (hidden) period of sensation. The latent period of various types of sensations is not the same: for example, for tactile sensations it is 130 ms, for pain - 370, and for taste - only 50 ms.

Spatial localization of the stimulus. The analysis carried out by spatial receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations are related to the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus.

PERCEPTIONS

When we talked about sensations, we saw that their content does not go beyond the elementary forms of reflection. However, the real processes of reflection of the external world go far beyond the most elementary forms. A person does not live in a world of isolated light or color spots, sounds or touches, he lives in a world of things, objects and forms, in a world of complex situations, i.e. no matter what a person perceives, he invariably deals not with individual sensations, but with whole images. The reflection of these images goes beyond isolated sensations, relying on the joint work of the senses, the synthesis of individual sensations into complex complex systems. This synthesis can proceed both within one modality (when looking at a picture, we combine individual visual impressions into a whole image), and within several modalities (perceiving an orange, we actually combine visual, tactile, taste impressions, add our knowledge of him). Only as a result of such a combination, isolated sensations turn into a holistic perception, move from the reflection of individual features to the reflection of entire objects or situations.

When perceiving familiar objects (a glass, a table), they are recognized very quickly - it is enough for a person to combine two or three perceived signs in order to come to the desired solution. When perceiving new or unfamiliar objects, their recognition is much more difficult and proceeds in much more developed forms. The complete perception of such objects arises as a result of complex analytical and synthetic work, highlighting some essential features, inhibiting others, insignificant and combining the perceived details into one meaningful whole.

Reception and processing by a person of information received through the senses ends with the appearance of images of objects and phenomena. The process of forming these images is called perception(sometimes the term is also used) "perception", "perceptual process").

Perception- this is the process of cognition of integral, complex things and phenomena that exist in the world and are represented in the human mind in the form of images. The result of perception as a process is an image, that is, a holistic, stable system of sensations associated with a particular object or phenomenon.

Perception called the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in the aggregate of their various properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. Perception is a reflection of a complex stimulus.

If, as a result of sensation, a person receives knowledge about individual properties, qualities of objects (something hot burned, something bright flashed ahead, etc.), then perception gives a holistic image of an object or phenomena. It presupposes the presence of various sensations and flows along with sensations, but cannot be reduced to their sum. Perception depends on certain relationships between sensations, the relationship of which, in turn, depends on the connections and relationships between qualities and properties, various parts that make up an object or phenomenon.

Modern views There are two theories on the process of perception. One of them is known as gestalt (image) theory.

Adherents of this concept believed that the nervous system of animals and humans perceives not separate external stimuli, but their complexes: for example, the shape, color and movement of an object are perceived as a whole, and not separately. Contrary to this theory behaviorists argued that only elementary (unimodal) sensory functions really exist, and attributed the ability to synthesize only to the brain. Modern science is trying to reconcile these two extreme theories. It is assumed that perception is initially quite complex, but the "integrity of the image" is still a product of the synthesizing activity of the cerebral cortex. In principle, we can talk about the gradual convergence of these approaches.

Of all types of perception that a person has, the main role in his life is played by visual and auditory perception. There is such a type of visual perception as the perception of space. The perception of movement and time, in which different sense organs take part, is considered separately.

Types of perception distinguish: the perception of objects, time, the perception of relationships, movements, space, the perception of a person.

Motion We are able to perceive the objects surrounding us due to the fact that the movement usually occurs against some background, this allows the retina of the eye to consistently reproduce the ongoing changes in the position of moving bodies in relation to those elements in front of which or behind which the object moves. Interestingly, in the dark, a still luminous point seems to be moving ( autokinetic effect).

The perception of visible movement is determined by data on the spatial position of objects, that is, it is associated with visual perception of the degree of remoteness of an object and an assessment of the direction in which this or that object is located.

Movement perception- this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer himself in space. Observing the movement, first of all perceive it:

1) character (flexion, extension, repulsion, pull-up, etc.);

2) shape (rectilinear, curvilinear, circular, arcuate, etc.);

3) amplitude (range) - small, large;

5) speed (fast or slow; with cyclic movements - fast or slow pace);

6) duration (multiple, long);

7) acceleration (uniform, accelerating, decelerating, smooth, intermittent).

The perception of movements is determined by the interaction of various analyzers: visual, motor, vestibular, auditory, etc.

Perception of space- this is the perception of shape, size, volume and objects, the distance between them, their relative position, distance and direction in which they are located.

The perception of space is based on the perception of the size and shape of objects through the synthesis of visual, muscular and tactile sensations, as well as on the perception of the volume and distance of objects, which is provided by binocular vision.

Perceptions can be wrong or distorted - illusions.

IV. visual illusions- this is an incorrect or distorted perception of the size, shape and remoteness of objects. There are many types of visual illusions. Some of them are:

but) re-evaluation of vertical lines. Of two lines of the same size, the vertical one is always visually perceived as much larger than the horizontal one.

b) misperception of the size of an object(object). For example, a tall person next to a short one seems taller than he really is; circles of the same diameter appear different depending on whether they are surrounded by larger or smaller objects in relation to them; identical objects appear to be of different sizes if they are perceived as being at a certain distance from each other, while an object located closer seems smaller, and a distant object larger than its actual size.

These illusions are explained by the law of perception, according to which the size of objects is estimated not by the actual size of their images on the retina, but in accordance with the estimate of the distance at which these objects are located.

Perception of time is a reflection of the objective duration, speed and sequence of the phenomena of reality. There is no special, independent time analyzer. Time perception is based on the rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition. Its dynamics in the nervous system constitutes the physiological basis for the perception of time. A certain state of nerve cells becomes a time signal, on the basis of which conditioned reflexes for time are developed in humans and animals.

Perception of a sequence of phenomena relies on a clear dismemberment and objectively existing change of some phenomena by others and is associated with ideas about the present, past and future, reflecting objective, periodically repeating processes in nature. Once perceived, the phenomenon will remain in memory in the form of a representation of it. Its repeated perception causes in our memory the idea of the former, which is realized as the past.

Perception of the duration of phenomena. It has been proven that a person can accurately perceive short periods of time no more than 0.75 s through special training in distinguishing micro-intervals of time. If an event occurs very slowly, the perception of its duration is based on indicators that allow you to divide time into certain segments.

Perception of pace- this is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli of a process taking place in time replace each other (for example, the alternation of sounds).

Rhythm perception- this is a reflection of the uniform alternation of stimuli, their regularity when objects and phenomena of objective reality act on our senses.

Perception properties:

1. Integrity, i.e. perception is always a holistic image of an object. This is an innate property. However, the ability of a holistic visual perception of objects is not congenital, this is evidenced by data on the perception of people who became blind in infancy and who regained their sight in adulthood. In the first days after the operation, they do not see the world of objects, but only vague outlines, spots of various brightness and size, i.e. there were single sensations, but there was no perception, they did not see integral objects. Gradually, over several weeks, these people develop visual perception, but it remained limited to what they had previously learned through touch. Thus, perception is formed in the process of practice, i.e. perception is a system of perceptual actions that must be mastered.

2. Constancy perception - due to constancy, we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, color, size, etc. The source of the constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system (the system of analyzers that provide the act of perception). Multiple perception of the same objects under different conditions makes it possible to single out a relatively constant invariant structure of the perceived object. Constancy of perception is not an innate property, but an acquisition. Violation of the constancy of perception occurs when a person finds himself in an unfamiliar situation, for example, when people look down from the upper floors of a high-rise building, cars and pedestrians seem small to them; at the same time, builders who work constantly at height report that they can see objects below without distorting their size.

3. Structure perceptions – perception is not a simple sum of sensations. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations. For example, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but a melody, and we recognize it if it is performed by an orchestra, or one piano, or a human voice, although individual sound sensations are different.

4. Meaningfulness perception - perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of objects.

5. Selectivity perception - is manifested in the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

objectivity perception - the ability of a person to reflect the surrounding reality as the impact of its specific objects belonging to a certain class of phenomena. At the same time, the brain clearly distinguishes between the object, the background and the contour of their perception.

Apperception- the dependence of perception on the previous experience of a person. So, in the perception of the same object by different people there are differences depending on the task, attitude, mental state of each of them. Apperception gives the active nature of the perception of the individual. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them.

A Swiss psychologist has found that even meaningless inkblots are always perceived as something meaningful (a dog, a cloud, a lake), and only some mental patients tend to perceive random inkblots as such. Those. perception proceeds as a dynamic process of searching for an answer to the question: “what is it?”.

ATTENTION

Attention is a mental cognitive process.

Attention- this is the orientation and concentration of consciousness on a certain object (phenomenon), which provides its especially clear reflection (suggesting an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity).

The object that we highlight is called the object of attention, and the rest of the objects from which we are distracted are called the background of attention.

According to Pavlov, in the state of wakefulness in the cortex of the hemispheres, the optimal focus of excitation. In general, there are many foci, but one is optimal. And the more attention is focused, the larger this focus. This is called the law of negative induction - increased irritation of one group of cells at the expense of others. Thus, when we focus, we make the optimal focus even more excited, and inhibition occurs in other areas, that is, the person is distracted from external stimuli (they are extinguished). By the way, this optimal focus dynamically moves, thereby providing variable attention.

According to Ukhtinsky, the optimal focus of excitation is the dominant (that is, with increased nervous excitability (dominant) dominating over the rest of the cortex (foci). As a result, consciousness is concentrated on certain objects and phenomena).

Types of attention

A person has several different types of attention: natural and social attention, involuntary voluntary and post-voluntary attention, immediate and mediated attention.

Natural they call such attention of a person that is given to him from birth, from nature, which begins to function quite early in ontogenesis, improves as the brain matures and practically does not depend on the experience acquired by a person, on training and education. It has been established that at the end of the first month of life, the child begins to pay attention to new stimuli. This indicates that his natural attention was included in the work.

Social or socially conditioned is also called attention, which the child does not have from birth and which he acquires in the process of life. Socially determined is called, for example, attention to objects and phenomena related to human life in society, that is, to objects and phenomena that represent human culture. This is attention to books, to music, to other works of art, to machines made by human hands, to events taking place in society.

involuntary- this is attention that turns on, functions, switches from object to object and turns off automatically, without the participation of the consciousness and will of the person. With all his desire, a person is not able to control this attention. An example of involuntary attention is an involuntary response to everything unusual that happens around. A person's attention can be triggered by an unexpected sound, an unusual object or phenomenon that he accidentally saw, a bright flash of light, and much more. This kind of attention is not influenced by training and upbringing and, like natural attention, is innate.

Arbitrary- this attention, which, on the contrary, is regulated by the will of a person, is under his conscious control. In this case, in order to pay attention to something and keep it for a certain time on this object, a person is forced to make an effort. For example, a person may be tired, but he needs to continue doing some business, to bring it to the end, and therefore he has to keep his attention on this matter by an effort of will.

Voluntary and involuntary attention seem to compete with each other: voluntary attention is distracted by involuntary attention, and involuntary attention, for its part, prevents the emergence of voluntary attention.

Sometimes it happens that, having at first shown voluntary attention to something and forcing himself to do this business without expressed interest in it, a person ultimately becomes interested in what he had to do and further studies against the background of the interest that has arisen in the corresponding business proceed already without special efforts. In this case, we are talking about the fact that a person has post-voluntary attention.

According to its characteristics post-voluntary attention resembles involuntary attention, but always occurs only some time after the establishment of voluntary attention to any business or object.

direct call such attention, which is attracted and retained on some object by this object itself. In this case, between the object that attracts attention to itself and the process of attention itself, there is nothing extraneous that would participate in its regulation. Note that direct attention, as well as the types of attention we have already considered - natural and involuntary - a person has from the moment of his birth.

Sometimes the object that needs to be paid attention to, for example, to remember it, to think about it, is physically absent at the moment, and it is impossible to perceive it directly with the help of the senses. In this case, the person turns to indirect attention.

mediated called attention, in which all its processes are controlled with the help of various kinds of additional, special means. People invented these means a long time ago, and gradually, in the course of the history of the development of human culture, these means themselves developed and improved.

One of the simplest means of controlling attention is gestures, head movements towards the object that needs to be paid attention to.

Methods of research in pedagogy and pedagogical psychology. Methods of pedagogical psychology. General concept of the psyche

Chapter 2

SUBJECT, METHODS AND TASKS OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 The subject of educational psychology

2.2 Methods of educational psychology

2.3 Tasks of educational psychology

2.4 The main system of concepts used in educational psychology

test questions

Literature

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents

Mayan calendar: there will be no end of the world

Why did the 1917 revolution happen?

Abel's prophecies about the world and Russia - new predictions

Real people with telekinesis

What is snow. S. Ivanov. What is the snow like What is the snow like in october

Methods of research in pedagogy and pedagogical psychology. Methods of pedagogical psychology. General concept of the psyche

Chapter 2

SUBJECT, METHODS AND TASKS OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 The subject of educational psychology

2.2 Methods of educational psychology

2.3 Tasks of educational psychology

2.4 The main system of concepts used in educational psychology

test questions

Literature

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents

Similar articles