The collapse of the ancient Russian state of specific principalities. Causes of the collapse of the Old Russian state. Vladimir-Suzdal principality; Novgorod the Great; Galicia-Volyn principality: political system, economic development, culture. The new principle of succession

The first division of the lands took place under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, during his reign princely feuds begin to flare up, the peak of which falls on 1015-1024, when only three of Vladimir's twelve sons survived. V. O. Klyuchevsky determined the beginning of the “specific period”, that is, the period of independence of the Russian principalities, from 1054, when, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia was divided among his children. The beginning of the period of fragmentation (both political and feudal) should be considered 1132, when the princes ceased to reckon with the Grand Duke of Kiev as the head of Russia.

Political fragmentation is a new form of organization of Russian statehood.

Causes of feudal fragmentation

1) The economic basis and the main cause of feudal fragmentation is often considered subsistence farming, the result of which was the absence of economic ties.

2) Improvement of farming techniques and tools, which contributed to the development of the economy of individual principalities and cities.

3) The growth and strengthening of cities as new political, economic and cultural centers. The local boyars and the prince relied on the cities in the struggle against the great Kievan prince. The growing role of the boyars and local princes led to the revival of city veche assemblies. Often the veche was used as an instrument of pressure not only on the great, but also on the local prince, forcing him to act in the interests of the local nobility. Thus, cities, as local political and economic centers, gravitating towards their lands, were the stronghold of the decentralization aspirations of local princes and nobility.

4) The need for strong local princely power to suppress social movements which inevitably arose with the development of feudalism. Therefore, the local boyars were forced to invite the prince with his retinue to their lands, the prince received a permanent reign, his own land fiefdom, and a stable rent-tax. At the same time, the prince sought to concentrate all power in his hands, limiting the rights and privileges of the boyars. This inevitably led to a struggle between the prince and the boyars.

5) The growth of boyar estates and the number of dependent smerds in them. In the XII - early XIII centuries. many boyars had feudal immunity (the right not to interfere in the affairs of the patrimony). The contradictions between the local boyars and the great prince of Kiev led to the strengthening of the desire of the former for political independence.

6) The weakening of the external danger from the side of the Polovtsy, defeated by Vladimir Monomakh. This made it possible to direct the main resources to solving the economic problems of individual principalities and also contributed to the development of centrifugal forces in the country.

7) The weakening of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the movement of trade routes from Europe to the East. All this led to the loss of Kiev's historical role, the decline of the power of the great Kievan prince, whose land estates in the XII century were significantly reduced.

8) The absence of a single rule of princely succession to the throne. The following methods are distinguished: hereditary succession (by will and ladder law); usurpation, or forceful seizure of power; transfer of power to the most influential person and election.

Fragmentation is a natural stage of development Ancient Russia. Each dynasty no longer considered its principality as an object of military booty, economic calculation came out on top. This allowed the local authorities to more effectively respond to the discontent of the peasants, external intrusion. Political fragmentation did not mean a rupture of ties between the Russian lands, did not lead to their complete disunity. The existence of a single religion and church organization, a single language, and the single laws of Russkaya Pravda served as a rallying point for all East Slavic lands.

Formation of new state centers

The principalities and lands of Russia of the specific period were fully established states, comparable in territory to European ones. The most important at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. acquire the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities, as well as the Novgorod land, which became the political centers of North-Eastern, South-Western and North-Western Russia, respectively. In each of them, a peculiar political system is formed: a princely monarchy in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, a princely-boyar monarchy in Galicia-Volyn and a boyar (aristocratic) republic in Novgorod.

Vladimiro (Rostovo) - Suzdal land

The main factors influenced the formation of a rich and powerful principality: remoteness from the steppe nomads in the south; landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north; possession of the upper reaches of the water arteries (Volga, Oka), through which wealthy Novgorod merchant caravans passed; good opportunities for economic development; significant emigration from the south (population influx); developed since the 11th century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.); very energetic and ambitious princes who headed the principality.

The lands were regarded as the property of the prince, and the population, including the boyars, as his servants. Vassal-druzhina relations characteristic of the period Kievan Rus, were replaced by princely subjects. As a result, a patrimonial system of power developed in North-Eastern Russia.

The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son are connected with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality Yuri Dolgoruky(1125-1157), who was distinguished by his desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kyiv. He captured Kyiv and became the Grand Duke of Kiev, actively influenced the policy of Novgorod the Great. In 1125 he moved the capital from Rostov to Suzdal, led the extensive construction of fortified cities on the borders of his principality, fought for the throne of Kyiv and occupied it from 1149 to 1151 and from 1155 to 1157; he is considered the founder of Moscow (1147).

Yuri's son and successor - Andrey Bogolyubsky(1157-1174) developed the idea of ​​God's chosen principality of Vladimir-Suzdal, strove for ecclesiastical independence from Kyiv, fought for the subjugation of Novgorod, fought with the Volga Bulgars. In Vladimir-on-Klyazma, impregnable white-stone gates were built, the Assumption Cathedral was erected. The policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, his desire to rule alone came into conflict with the veche and boyar traditions, and in 1174 Andrei was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the boyars.

The policy of unification of all Russian lands under the rule of one prince was continued by Andrei's half-brother - Vsevolod Big Nest(1176-1212), so called for his large family. Under him, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality reached its peak. He subjugated Kyiv, Chernigov, Ryazan, Novgorod; successfully fought with the Volga Bulgaria and the Polovtsians; under him, the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir was established. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the backbone of princely power. The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, at the beginning of the XIII century. there is its disintegration into destinies: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslav, Yuryevsky, Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state.

Galicia-Volyn principality

Features and development conditions: fertile lands for agriculture and vast forests for fishing activities; significant deposits of rock salt, which was exported to neighboring countries; convenient geographical position(neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic), which allowed for active foreign trade; relative safety from nomad attacks; the presence of an influential local boyars, who fought for power not only among themselves, but also with the princes.

The Galician principality was significantly strengthened during the reign Yaroslav Osmomysl(1153-1187). His successor (Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich) in 1199 managed to unite the Volyn and Galician principalities. After the death of Roman Mstislavovich in 1205, an internecine war broke out in the principality with the participation of Hungarians and Poles. Roman's son Daniel Galitsky(1221-1264), broke the boyar resistance and in 1240, having occupied Kyiv, managed to unite the southwestern and Kiev lands. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was ravaged by the Mongols-Tatars, and 100 years later these lands became part of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galych).

Novgorod land

At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. a kind of political formation took shape here - a feudal aristocratic (boyar) republic. Novgorodians themselves called their state "Lord Veliky Novgorod".

Development features Novgorod land: the leading branches of the economy are trade and craft; poor development of agriculture due to the low fertility of the land and harsh climatic conditions; wide development of crafts (salting, fishing, hunting, iron production, beekeeping); an exceptionally favorable geographical position (at the crossroads of trade routes linking Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium); was not subjected to strong Mongol-Tatar plunder, although it paid tribute.

Novgorod Republic was close to the European type of development (similar to the city-republics of the Hanseatic League) and the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). As a rule, Novgorod was ruled by that of the princes who held the throne of Kyiv. This allowed the eldest among the Rurik princes to control the Great Way and dominate Russia. Using the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians (the uprising of 1136), the boyars, which possessed significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power, Novgorod became a boyar republic. In fact, the power belonged to the boyars, the higher clergy and eminent merchants. All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (heads of government), thousand (heads of the city militia and judges in commercial affairs), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled the foreign policy of Veliky Novgorod), etc. - were replenished from the boyar nobility. Senior officials were elected. In the second half of the XII century. Novgorodians began to choose their spiritual pastor - Vladyka (Archbishop of Novgorod).

The prince did not have full state power, did not inherit Novgorod land, but was invited only to perform representative and military functions. Any attempt by a prince to intervene in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion (58 princes visited in over 200 years).

The supreme body of power was the people's assembly - veche, which had broad powers: consideration of the most important issues of internal and foreign policy; the invitation of the prince and the conclusion of an agreement with him; the election of an important trade policy for Novgorod, as well as a posadnik, a judge for commercial affairs, etc. The actual owners of the veche were 300 "golden belts" - the largest boyars of Novgorod - by the 15th century. they actually usurped the rights of the people's council.

Kiev principality

The Kiev principality, endangered by the nomads, lost its former importance due to the outflow of the population and the decline in the importance of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." On the eve of the Mongol invasion, the power of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich was established in it. In 1299, the Russian metropolitan moved his residence to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, thus establishing a new alignment of forces in Russia.

Consequences of political fragmentation

Positive: the flourishing of cities in specific lands, the formation of new trade routes, the development of the economy and culture of individual principalities and lands.

Negative: fragmentation of principalities between heirs; constant princely strife, which exhausted the strength of the Russian lands; weakening the country's defense capability in the face of external danger. By 1132, there were about 15 isolated territories, at the beginning of the 13th century. There were already 50 independent principalities and destinies, and at the end of the 13th century. - 250.

The process of the onset of feudal fragmentation made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this position, we can talk about the historical progressiveness of this stage of Russian history in the framework of the development of the economy and culture. In addition, this period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and integral state.

The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus existed in the region IX-XII in. ad. The main reasons for the collapse of Kievan Rus, like all medieval powers, were historically logical.

1. State power of Kievan Rus.
In the ancient state of Kievan Rus, there were two opposing poles state power- this veche and prince. Veche, as a collective method of government, and the Prince is authoritarian.

The functions of the veche included questions of war, peace, coordination of military battles, but the main decision was the choice of the prince. The expulsion of objectionable princes was not such a rare occurrence.

The power of the veche at that time was considered very significant, although it had neither a permanent composition nor a place of convocation. There was no vote count at that time either. The veche included boyars, merchants, clergy, and artisans. For example, the Nizhny Novgorod Veche consisted of up to 500 person, members of the assembly. But the word of the boyars and merchants was decisive.

The functions of the ancient Russian prince included protection of Russia from attacks, court and tax collection. When the prince was Boyar Duma, consisting of vigilantes, which participated in the meetings of the city elders.

Between the end X and to the top XI century, princely rule takes on a different form. During this period, the Russian state was ruled by the Rurik family. In Kyiv, the head of the family, Father Vladimir, ruled, and the cities and regions were ruled by his sons, who were considered the governors of the prince.

After the death of the father, according to the rules of family inheritance, the princely throne should pass to the brother in seniority, and then if the last of the brothers goes out, then to the eldest nephew. This order of inheritance was called next or ladder. In Rurik's mind, this order of succession was supposed to preserve the unity of kinship, and hence the unity of the Kievan state.
At first, this order was carried out, and relative stabilization was established in Russia.
But with the growth family tree inheritance problems became more complicated, creating the prerequisites for conflicts between members of the genus.

Civil strife between princes.

The first conflict happened between the sons of Prince Vladimir, in particular, Svyatopolk - one side, and Boris and Gleb - the other side, who had historical meaning. Svyatopolk violated the unity of the clan, the highest value, by killing his brothers in order to take the throne. Among the people, he was nicknamed "cursed." His other brother Yaroslav, who headed the city of Novgorod, came to Kyiv with his retinue and ousted him from the throne.

The order of succession to the throne established by Yaroslav was maintained for 19 years.

After Yaroslav, the Russian state was ruled by his eldest son Izyaslav, his other son Svyatoslav ruled Chernigov, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl. The younger sons were governors in the distant cities of the Russian state.

Soon the brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod hear rumors that Izyaslav wants to be an autocrat, like their father. Alarmed by this development of events, they send their squads to Kyiv and expel Izyaslav from the throne. As a result of bloody battles, the Grand Duke's throne is headed by Svyatoslav, and Vsevolod headed the second most important city of Chernihiv.
IN 1076 year after the death of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav, Vsevolod voluntarily gives the throne to the exiled Izyaslav in order to avoid repeated bloodshed. Izyaslav and Vsevolod divided among themselves the possessions of the Russian state, while depriving the sons of the late Svyatoslav.

This was the beginning of another protracted turmoil in Russia. Between the separate branches of the Yaroslavich family, a battle began for the grand princely rule, which gave the right to distribute land.

Princely internecine wars weakened Russia in front of external enemies, who benefited from these strife.

Realizing the weakness of the state, the Russian princes came to the conclusion to stop civil strife and unite in the fight against the Polovtsy.
To this end, in 1097 Princes from different volosts arrived in the city of Lyubech, where they decided to stop fratricidal wars and proclaimed a new order of relations among themselves, which read: “Let everyone keep his own patrimony”. This signified the refusal of the princes from the ladder form of succession to the throne, which led to the formation of regional dynasties. The tribal indivisibility of the Russian land was gradually destroyed.

Historians believe that the adoption of a new order of succession to the throne in Lyubech was the reason for the beginning of the disintegration of Kievan Rus into separate principalities.

Economic strengthening of individual principalities.

The result of the Lyubech Congress was the formation of separate independent principalities with an independent policy. towards the middle XII century there were about 13 of them, and already at the beginning XIII centuries, their number reached 50. The princes tried not only to secure territories for themselves, but also to increase their length.

With the development of agriculture, more and more arable fields were developed, the land acquired value. Craft developed and trade flourished. During this period, each principality was distinguished by its identity and culture. The population increased, cities and estates grew richer, temples were built and cities were fortified.

The economic and military power of individual principalities was so great that it sometimes surpassed Kyiv.

The largest principalities of that period:
 Novgorodskoe, center in Novgorod;
 Vladimir-Suzdalskoe, center in Vladimir;
 Kievskoe, center in Kyiv;
 Chernihiv and Seversk, center in Chernihiv;
 Galicia-Volynskoye, the center of Galich;
 Rostov, center in Rostov.

Economically strong principalities no longer needed the protection of the central government as before. They had their own boyars, merchants, clergy, temples, monasteries, good artisans and their own squad, who supported the desire for independence of their princes.

In addition, at that time, Kievan Rus was headed by Svyatopolk II, who proved to be a weak ruler. Some princes did not revere him for the Grand Duke.

The economic and political independence of individual principalities became another reason for the collapse of Kievan Rus.

The large territorial extent of the ancient Russian state and the difference in natural and economic conditions.

Another reason for the collapse of the Russian state was played by the factor of a huge territorial space. The territories of the location of the principalities differed from each other in individual natural and climatic features, and in connection with this, there were differences in the conduct of agriculture and fishing, the development of handicraft and industrial production. These differences determined the varying degree of economic condition of the principalities.

The local conditions of the territories affected the political structure of the principalities.

For example, Veliky Novgorod was a member of the trade union of the Baltic cities. City merchants were of significant importance in the self-government body of this union.

The Galicia-Volyn principality was in the field of inaccessibility of the Kiev enemies - the Polovtsy, at the same time, on its borders, it was held back by constant attacks from the Poles, Magyars and Lithuanians. The boyars, who got rich in the production of salt, had great political weight in solving state issues and were the first to express a desire to secede from Kyiv.

And the Vladimir-Suzdal principality from Volyn was located at a distance of more than one thousand kilometers. They were completely different worlds.

The multinationality of the ancient Russian state.

The composition of the population of Ancient Russia included more 20 nationalities and peoples. Not a single European state had so many different peoples in its composition. The language barrier did not have the best effect on economic and political ties between individual principalities and Kiev.

In the end XII centuries, Kievan Rus turned into a federation of peculiar state formations with a bustling public life. Theoretically, the prince of Kyiv stood at the head of the state, but in fact, the new Russia no longer needed him as a centralized state power.

All these reasons together served as an impetus for the beginning of the process of disintegration of Kievan Rus. This process was more progressive and was not a Russian feature, but, on the contrary, became a stage for the future economic and political development states on a new basis.

History as a science, subject, goals and principles of its study.

IN human life which concern the life of peoples and states, the activities of individuals, international relations.

Course subject national history is the Russian historical process from antiquity to the present.

In the revival of the Fatherland, along with economic factors, an important role is played by the intellectual potential of society, and this, to some extent, depends on high school, from the place and significance of the humanities in it. In the process of studying history, a person develops a historical consciousness, the content of which includes a number of elements:

1. Knowledge of the facts of history;

2. The ability to consider reality in all three time dimensions: in the past, present, future;

3. Generalized historical experience and the lessons of history arising from it;

4. Social forecasting based on the study of social processes.

History features. History is traditionally the basis of humanitarian education and the most important factor in the formation of people's self-awareness. It performs a number of functions, often beyond the world of science. These include:
– descriptive (narrative) function , which boils down to fixing what is happening and the primary systematization of information;
– cognitive (cognitive, explanatory) function , the essence of which is the understanding and explanation of historical processes and phenomena;
– prognostic function (foreseeing the future) And practical-recommendatory (practical-political) function . Both involve using the lessons of the past to improve the lives of human communities in the near and distant future;
– educational (cultural and ideological) function, function of social memory .

2. Natural-climatic, geopolitical and other factors of Russia's development and their influence on Russian history.

In physical and geographical terms, our Fatherland is a complex complex. The country occupies the territory of two parts of the world - the eastern part of Europe and the north of Asia. A feature of the relief is the predominance of plains in the west and northwest, and mountains in the south and east.

An important geographical factor that determines the characteristics of the country's territory are the seas, lakes, and other bodies of water. Water systems could promote or oppose the economic development of lands, economic and political ties, and in some cases played an important role in the historical fate of individual territories. Russia is a vast, sparsely populated territory, the Russian border is protected by natural barriers. Also characterized by isolation from the seas, a dense river network, an intermediate position between Europe and Asia. A huge variety of soils has influenced and still affects economic activity human. The origin and formation of Russian statehood took place on the territory of the East European (or Russian) plain. Its characteristic properties are monotonous surfaces, comparatively short coastline and the absence of internal natural boundaries in the form of mountains and mountain ranges. Russia has always been characterized by long winters and short summers, as a result of which the volume of the total surplus product was low. And this led to the emergence of serfdom, despotic power. The fundamental features of the peasant economy, ultimately, left an indelible imprint on Russian national character, at first glance contradictory: the ability to extreme exertion of forces - the absence of a pronounced habit of thoroughness, accuracy in work, the eternal craving for the “podrayansky land”, an extraordinary sense of kindness, collectivism, readiness to provide assistance, up to self-sacrifice, etc.

3.Settlement of the Slavs in Europe. Eastern Slavs in antiquity.

The ancestors of the Slavs - the Proto-Slavs - belonged to the Indo-European family of peoples who inhabited the vast territories of the European continent, stretching from Europe to India, in the 4th-3rd millennia BC.

In the second half of the 1st millennium BC, the ancient Slavs settled the lands from the Elbe and Oder in the West to the Upper Dnieper and Middle Dnieper in the East. During the period of cohabitation, the Slavic tribes spoke the same Proto-Slavic language. However, as they settled, they began to move further and further away from each other, which was especially evident in language and culture.

Somewhat later, the Slavic family was divided into three branches, which served as the basis for three modern nations - Western Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks), Southern Slavs (Bulgarians, Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, Macedonians, Bosnians, Montenegrins), Eastern Slavs(Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians).

The resettlement of the Eastern Slavs in antiquity

In the 6th-9th centuries, the Eastern Slavs settled in the territory stretching from east to west from the upper reaches of the Don and the Middle Oka to the Carpathians and from the south to the north from the Middle Dnieper to the Neva and Lake Ladoga. The main occupation of the East Slavic tribes was agriculture.

In the process of the settlement of the Slavic tribes along the East European Plain, they undergo a gradual decomposition of the primitive communal system. As the Tale of Bygone Years says, individual tribes united around one of the most powerful tribes in tribal unions or reigns. The annals mention more than a dozen such associations and places of their settlement. Eastern tribal unions were headed by princes from the tribal nobility. Particularly important decisions for the tribe were made at general meetings - veche gatherings.

The most influential, according to historians, was the union of the meadows that inhabited the territory of the middle reaches of the Dnieper. The land of glades, according to ancient chronicles, was called "Rus". It is considered to be the core of the ancient Russian state.

The process of gathering the Slavic lands into a single whole took place from north to south around two centers: in the northwest - Novgorod, in the south - Kyiv. As a result, Novgorod-Kievan Rus was formed. Conventionally, the date of this unification is considered to be the reign of Oleg - 882. The two-centric structure was actually preserved in the future, despite the fact that Kiev was named the capital. They are considered the ancestors of modern Chuvash, partly Tatars, Mari, Udmurts.

4. Formation of the Old Russian state and its history There are three main versions of the origin of the Old Russian state:
1. Norman theory
2. Anti-Normanism (Slavic theory)
3. Neo-Norman theory
According to the chroniclers of the beginning of the 12th century, in 862 Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Russia by Novgorodians, marking the beginning of a princely dynasty. The legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the Norman theory.
M.V. Lomonosov denied the Varangian origin of the word "Rus", associating this word with the river Ros in the south of the Slavic territory. The "southern" hypothesis of the origin of the name "Rus", the thesis about the internal development of the ancient Russian state contributed to the formation of the anti-Norman theory. There are also several more assumptions for the name "Rus": from the word "blond" - fair-haired, from the word "Russo" - red.
During the first half of the 20th century, a neo-Norman theory was formed, the essence of which is that the state cannot be imposed from the outside, it is a purely internal process of any society. The Slavs were at that stage of development when they should have had a state, but if the chronicle tells about the Varangians, then, apparently, they were and contributed to the acceleration of the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
Reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state:
1. The collapse of the tribal community, its property stratification, the emergence of a neighboring community;
2. The influx of population into the lands of North-Eastern Russia;
3. Formation of tribal unions.
Stages of formation of statehood.
First there are tribal unions. Russian chronicles name two - northern and southern: Southern - with a center in Kyiv, Northern - with a center in Novgorod.
In 882, Prince Oleg made a campaign against Kyiv, killed the Kievan princes Askold and Dir, and proclaimed Kyiv the mother of Russian cities. Thus, the process of formation of a single Old Russian state is completed. The Kiev princes sought to seize the surrounding Slavic and non-Slavic lands. The expansion of the state was facilitated by the wars against the Khazars, Volga and Danube Bulgaria. Raised the authority of the Old Russian state and campaigns against Byzantium. The ancient Russian state was early feudal, state property dominated in it, and the property of the feudal lords was only being formed. Therefore, the exploitation of the population was carried out by the state mainly in the form of tribute (polyudya). The trend towards strengthening the state was observed until the middle of the 11th century, but already under Yaroslav the Wise by the beginning of the 12th century. the process of feudal fragmentation was growing, through which all states passed.

5.The adoption of Christianity in Russia: causes and significance.

In the 9th century, Christianity spread throughout almost all of Europe. In Russia, paganism remained the state religion, but from the middle of the 10th century, the first Christians appeared. In 946 (or 954), Princess Olga converted to Christianity, but her son Svyatoslav remained a pagan. In 988, the baptism of Russia takes place. Using the connections of Russia with Byzantium, the Kyiv prince Vladimir baptized the people of Kiev in the Dnieper, and then Christianity was introduced in other cities.
Causes:
1. Strengthening the role of the state and its rise above the people.
2. The desire to unite the country with religion.
3. To join unions, raise international prestige.
Baptism took place voluntarily, but there were cases of violence.
At that moment, it was with the Christian powers that Russia maintained relations, so the choice of the prince is not surprising. The fact that Orthodoxy was chosen was a factor in the closest rapprochement between Russia and Byzantium, these countries had not only political and economic ties, they were culturally close. Also in favor of Orthodoxy was the fact that such a religion depended on the ruler and was subordinate to him. Naturally, the Byzantine patriarch became the main church in Russia, but Russia still remained independent both politically and religiously. The next defining moment was that Orthodoxy allows rituals to be performed in the national language of any people, while Catholicism requires rituals to be performed in Latin. It was important for Kiev that it was the Slavic language that was exalted.

It should be noted that the adoption of Orthodoxy in Russia was not easy, it underwent a process of Russification. The identity of the Slavs could not be put anywhere, and the new faith was still weak, unlike the old rites, so it is not surprising that the assimilation of Orthodoxy took place in a peculiar way.

Meanwhile, in contrast to Kyiv, where the new religion took root relatively easily thanks to the authority of the prince, some regions actively resisted the reforms. For example, the inhabitants of Novgorod resisted for a very long time, and they had to be forcibly converted to Christianity. Therefore, analyzing the stages of the adoption of Christianity in Russia, it must be said that not everything is so simple. In the minds of the people of that time, paganism existed for a long time. The Orthodox Church had to adapt and sometimes combine pagan holidays and its own cults. And now we have such pagan holidays as Maslenitsa and some others that have merged with Orthodox ones. This process cannot be called dual faith, it is rather a synthesis of paganism and Christianity, which resulted in Russian Orthodoxy. Over time, the pagan elements were removed and gradually only some of the most persistent remained.

Consequences:
1. The morals of the Russian people softened.
2. Increase of moral and spiritual values, development of culture.
3. Strengthening princely power.
4. Strengthening the international authority of Russia.
5. The unification of the Russian people, the birth of national identity (the formation of one nation).
6. The construction of temples, the emergence of cities and new crafts.
7. The adoption of the alphabet (Cyril and Methodius, IX century), the spread of literacy, education.
By the turn of the 10th - 11th centuries, the state of Rus had become one of the largest and most powerful in Europe.

Russia in the XI-XIII centuries. The collapse of the ancient Russian state.

In 1097, princes from different lands of Kievan Rus gathered in the city of Lyubech and proclaimed a new principle of relations among themselves: "Let everyone keep his fatherland." Its adoption meant that the princes abandoned the ladder system of succession to princely thrones (it went to the eldest in the entire grand ducal family) and switched to inheriting the throne from father to eldest son within individual lands. By the middle of the XII century. the political fragmentation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv was already a fait accompli. It is believed that the introduction of the principle adopted in Lyubech was a factor in the collapse of Kievan Rus. However, not the only and not the most important.
During the 11th century Russian lands developed in an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership increased, cities grew rich. They were less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by his guardianship. To maintain order within his "fatherland", the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to the internal ones. Polovtsy raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands for the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galic, Volyn) outskirts. The princes of Kiev were weakening in the military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs were falling.
In the 30-40s. 12th century princes cease to recognize the power of the Kievan prince. Russia breaks up into separate principalities (“lands”). For Kyiv began the struggle of different princely branches. The strongest lands were Chernigov, Vladimir-ro-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn. Their princes were subject to princes whose possessions (destinies) were part of large lands. The prerequisites for fragmentation are the growth of local centers, already burdened by the guardianship of Kyiv, the development of princely and boyar land ownership.

The principality of Vladimir rose under Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky (d. 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (d. 1212). Yuri and Andrei captured Kyiv more than once, but Andrei, unlike his father, planted his brother there, and did not reign himself. Andrew tried to rule by despotic methods and was killed by conspirators. the Polovtsian danger intensifies. The southern princes, led by Svyatoslav of Kiev, inflicted several defeats on them, but in 1185 Igor Novgorod-Seversky was defeated and captured by the Polovtsy, the nomads ravaged part of southern Russia. But by the end of the century, the Polovtsy, having broken up into many separate hordes, stopped the raids. The consequences of political fragmentation.

1. In the conditions of the formation of new economic regions and the formation of new political formations, the steady development of the peasant economy took place, new arable lands were developed, there was an expansion and quantitative multiplication of estates, which for their time became the most progressive form of farming.

2. Within the framework of the principalities-states, the Russian church was gaining strength, which had a strong influence on culture.

3. A counterbalance to the final disintegration of Russia was the constantly existing external danger to the Russian lands from the side of the Polovtsians, respectively, the Kyiv prince acted as the defender of Russia.

Political fragmentation

From the 2nd third of the 12th century to the end of the 15th century, a period of feudal fragmentation lasted in Russia. The main prerequisites:

weakening of the central power of the Kiev prince,

strengthening the power of the feudal lords in the field. (uprising in Kyiv-1113.

the disaster of the people due to the strife of the princes) Large-scale feudal landownership grew.

Large feudal lords have their own squads, control apparatus: an increase in desire to separate from Kiev. Special reliance on service nobles, who made up the squad. and the dependence of smerds. At the end of the 12th-beginning of the 13th century. three centers developed in Russia: the Galicia-Volyn principality had territories from the Prussians and Lithuanians to the Danube (Galic, Cherven, Lvov, Przemysl, Vladimir) 1199-1205 princes. Roman Mstislavovich. A special flourishing under Daniil Romanovich (1238-1264) The boyars wanted to get out of the princely power, conspiring with the Vladimir-Suzdal region from Nizhny Novg to Tver. -1157)

He expanded by subjugating: Murom, Ryazan, Mordovians, Mari. RostetMoscowAndrey Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) -captured Kyiv and proclaimed himself the Grand Duke. .

Novgorod. freed from Kyiv in 1136. Power belonged to the rich. Boyars. The prince was invited with a retinue. The prince did not have the right to manage and own in the republic. In 1348, Pskov separated. Polit. crushed. did not result in a cult. disunity. The general religious conscience. And the unity of the church slowed the processes apart. I created the predp.

For the future reunification of Russian lands.

A positive moment of fragmentation was the development of the country's regions.

Negative: 1. Civil strife 2. The struggle for the territory of the principality 3. Russia was secured on the eve of the next invasion of nomads.

Feudal Fragmentation - Mandatory historical period in the development of medieval statehood. Russia did not escape it either, and this phenomenon developed here for the same reasons and in the same ways as in other countries.

Shifted deadlines

Like everything in ancient Russian history, the period of fragmentation in our lands comes a little later than in Western Europe. If on average such a period dates back to the 10th-13th centuries, then in Russia fragmentation begins in the 11th century and actually continues until the middle of the 15th century. But this difference is not essential.

It is also not important that all the main local rulers in the era of fragmentation of Russia had some reason to be considered Rurikovich. In the west, too, all the major feudal lords were relatives.

Mistake of the Wise

By the time the Mongol conquests began (that is, already before), Russia was already completely fragmented, the prestige of the "Kiev table" was purely formal. The decay process was not linear, there were periods of short-term centralization. There are several events that can serve as milestones in the study of this process.

Death (1054). This ruler made a not too wise decision - he officially divided his empire between his five sons. A struggle for power immediately began between them and their heirs.

The Lyubech congress (1097) (read about it) was called upon to put an end to civil strife. But instead, he officially consolidated the claims of one or another branch of the Yaroslavichs to certain territories: "... let each one keep his fatherland."

Separatist actions of the Galician and Vladimir-Suzdal princes (second half of the 12th century). They not only defiantly made efforts to prevent the strengthening of the Kiev principality through an alliance with other rulers, but also inflicted direct military defeats on it (for example, Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1169 or Roman Mstislavovich of Galicia-Volynsky in 1202).

Temporary centralization of power was observed during the reign (1112-1125), but it was precisely that temporary, due to the personal qualities of this ruler.

The inevitability of decay

One can regret the collapse of the ancient Russian state, which led to the defeat of the Mongols, long dependence on them, and economic backwardness. But medieval empires were initially doomed to collapse.

It was almost impossible to manage a large territory from one center with the almost complete absence of passable roads. In Russia, the situation was aggravated by the winter cold and prolonged mudslides, when it was generally impossible to travel (it’s worth considering: this is not the 19th century with pit stations and shift drivers, what is it like to carry a supply of provisions and fodder with you for a journey of several weeks?). Accordingly, the state in Russia was initially centralized only conditionally, the governors and relatives of the prince sent full power locally. Naturally, they quickly had a question, why should they, at least formally, obey someone.

Trade was poorly developed, subsistence farming prevailed. Therefore, economic life did not cement the unity of the country. Culture, in the conditions of limited mobility of the majority of the population (well, where and for how long could a peasant go?) could not be such a force, although it retained ethnic unity as a result, which then facilitated a new unification.

Causes of the collapse of the ancient Russian state

The process of disintegration of the state into sovereign principalities (or feudal fragmentation) took place over several hundred years. Its prerequisites were laid down in the process of the formation of the ancient Russian state. As you remember, back in the 9th century, the system of political interactions was based on personal loyalty: a warrior / warrior (or, as historians say, a “vassal”) takes an oath of allegiance to his lord and is ready to die for his prince or lord at any moment, and he in turn gives him an inheritance (land). The economy in these respects is also quite simple: 2/3 of all polyudya fees should go to the prince who gave him this site (this is how taxes reached the center - Kyiv) through this pyramid. The possession itself was called the “patrimony” and had no conditions for its loss or possession (hence the patrimony is considered “unconditional land tenure”). This means that a vassal could easily divide his lot between his children, bequeath, sell, drink away or lose at cards, or give part of the land to his vassals / warriors who protect him and his family (depending on the place of a person in this emerging feudal hierarchy) . So this system, already at the beginning of its formation, had one important flaw - if the prince comes into conflict with the vassal, then he also has his own army. And over time, the princes who held large cities or principalities (Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov, etc.) as their inheritance only began to strengthen their political and economic significance. By the middle of the XI century. (the time of the death of Yaroslav the Wise), local urban military elites had already formed, the well-being and prosperity of which depended solely on the position of their lord. The richer he is, the richer they are. That is why this powder keg to XI does not withstand the stress and is already giving its failures.

In addition to such a primitive feeding system that was created back in the 9th century. (i.e., grants by the prince of territories to his vassals/combatants in exchange for service), had another major drawback: when a strong and influential person sits in the center, then all principalities regularly and almost always honestly pay taxes (polyudye), when in power weak - you can't wait for the money. Money settles in local centers and gradually by the 11th century. Novgorod, Smolensk and other cities are already competing with Kiev.

The above two objective reasons made the process of feudal fragmentation inevitable, but those that arose in the 11th century. subjective reasons accelerated it.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise, during his lifetime, made a will, where he transferred the entire territory to his five sons, dividing it into "destinies". eldest son Izyaslav received Kiev and Novgorod lands; Svyatoslav- Chernihiv and Murom, Tmutarakan; Vsevolod- Pereyaslavl, Rostov-Suzdal land, Vyacheslav- Smolensk, Igor - Volyn and Carpathian Rus. The brothers received their reigns rather as governorships, for a while, and had to honor their elder brother Izyaslav, who inherited the great reign, "in his father's place." Nevertheless, the brothers together had to observe the unity of the Russian land, protect it from alien enemies and stop attempts at internecine strife. Russia was then conceived by the Rurikoviches as their common patrimonial possession, where the eldest in the family, being the Grand Duke, acted as the supreme manager. To their credit, the Yaroslavichi brothers lived for almost two decades, guided by their father's will, preserving the unity of the Russian land and protecting its borders. In 1072, the Yaroslavichi continued the legislative work of their father. A number of laws under the general title " The Truth of the Yaroslavichs"Supplemented and developed the articles of Russkaya Pravda.

A year later, Svyatoslav, weighed down by his position as the ruler of the inheritance, albeit not a small one, and having lost respect for his elder brother, by force took away the great reign from Izyaslav. Izyaslav left Russia and embarked on joyless wanderings around Europe in a futile search for support. He asked for help from both the German emperor and the Pope, lost his treasury in the lands of the Polish king, and only after the death of Svyatoslav in 1076 was he able to return to Russia. The soft-hearted Vsevolod Yaroslavich generously returned to his elder brother his rightful great reign, but soon the nephews Oleg and Boris raised the sword against their uncle. IN 1078 in Battle of Nezhatina Niva near Chernigov, Izyaslav defeated the rebels, but he himself fell in battle. Vsevolod became the Grand Duke, but all 15 years of his reign (1078-1093) passed in incessant internecine strife, the main culprit of which was the energetic and cruel Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, who received the nickname Gorislavich.

The trouble was nesting in the very Yaroslavl specific system, which could no longer satisfy the overgrown family of Rurikovich. Each branch of the clan - Izyaslavichi, Svyatoslavichi, Igorevichi, etc. - could consider itself infringed and demand a redistribution of principalities in its favor. No less confusing was the inheritance law. According to the old custom, the eldest in the family was supposed to inherit the reign, but along with Christianity, Byzantine law also comes to Russia, recognizing the inheritance of power only for direct offspring: the son must inherit the father, bypassing other relatives, even older ones. The inconsistency of hereditary rights, the uncertainty and confusion of destinies - this is the natural breeding ground that has nurtured many problems.

The situation was further complicated by the fact that new nomads, the Cumans, appeared on the southern border of Kievan Rus. They regularly raided the border lands (mainly in the autumn, when the harvest had already been harvested, but the polyudye had not yet been paid). The farmers could not fight back, and since political institutions were extremely weakened at that time, it was extremely difficult for combatants to protect these hard workers due to the high mobility of nomads and the slowness of the military structures of that time. The situation escalated to such an extent that the Polovtsy once again reached Kyiv and tried to take it. So, in 1068, an uprising broke out against the people of Kiev against their Grand Duke Izyaslav, who was afraid to go out and repulse the nomads, it was about to flee to the Poles, and therefore refused to arm the townspeople. Izyaslav expected reprisals against himself immediately after the people of Kiev dealt with the Polovtsy, and therefore the uprising began to be suppressed. The Polovtsians entered the city, Kyiv was plundered ...

Attempts to diplomatically resolve internecine conflicts

Gradually, many princes changed their minds and began to look for a way to end the strife. A particularly prominent role in this belonged to the son of Vsevolod Yaroslavich Vladimir Monomakh. At his suggestion, in 1097 the princes gathered in Lyubech for the first princely congress. This congress was considered by Monomakh and other princes as a means that would allow reaching a common agreement and finding a way to prevent further civil strife. At it, the most important decision was made, which read: "Let everyone keep his fatherland." Thus, each prince turned from a governor, always ready to leave his inheritance for the sake of a more honorable reign, into its permanent and hereditary owner. Being now confident in their rights to hereditary possessions, the princes should have stopped their former enmity. If earlier the Russian land was a common tribal possession of all the Ruriks, which was controlled by the Grand Duke, now Russia was turning into a collection of hereditary princely possessions. Since that time, the princes in their principalities are no longer governors by the will of the Grand Duke, as has been customary since the time of St. Vladimir, but full-fledged masters-rulers. The power of the Kiev prince, who thus lost his former right to distribute destinies-governors throughout the Russian land, inevitably lost its all-Russian significance. Thus, Russia entered a historical period, the most important feature of which was political fragmentation. Many countries of Europe and Asia went through this period to one degree or another.

S.V. Ivanov. Congress of princes in Uvetiyechi

But Russia did not find itself in a state of fragmentation immediately after the Lyubech Congress. For a time, the principalities nevertheless united. In the first decades of the XII century. Russia goes on the offensive against the Polovtsy, inflicting crushing defeats on them. During the reign in Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), it seemed that the times of Saint Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise had returned.

Vladimir Monomakh was born in 1053, a year before the death of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, who was his grandfather. Vladimir owes his nickname to his maternal grandfather, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh. Camping life, however, did not prevent Vladimir from marrying. His wife was Gita, daughter last king Saxons of England - Harold, who died at the Battle of Hastings (1066). During the campaign of Vladimir in the Czech Republic, his eldest son, Mstislav, was born. After Vsevolod Yaroslavich became the Grand Duke of Kiev, his son occupied the throne of Chernigov, the second most important in the Russian land, for 16 years.

Becoming the Grand Duke at the age of 60, Vladimir Vsevolodovich showed himself to be wise statesman and legislator. Under him, Russkaya Pravda was supplemented with important articles limiting the abuses of usurers, protecting the rights of rural workers - "purchases". A number of articles protected the interests of the merchants. For the first time in the history of Russia, Monomakh spoke out (although this was not reflected in the legislation) and was against the death penalty as a form of punishment in general, even for the most serious crimes. Using the huge military resources accumulated to fight the nomads, Monomakh controlled the entire Russian land and ruled it as a strict but wise sovereign. Vladimir was merciful to the rebels, but he punished mercilessly for repeated strife. His sons successfully fought with their neighbors. In the northwest, Mstislav built stone fortresses in Ladoga and Novgorod. In the northeast, Yuri repelled the attacks of the Volga Bulgars and improved Zalessky Rus - the future Russia, populating it, founding new cities and laying the first white-stone churches of the present Vladimir region. Prince Yaropolk of Pereyaslav, continuing the work of his father, went to the Polovtsy in 1116 and 1120, after which they fled to the Caucasus and Hungary. He also annexed the free Danubian cities to Russia. Polotsk land was completely subjugated. Since 1122, friendly relations with Byzantium were restored. Vladimir Monomakh died in 1125, at the age of 72, having bequeathed to his son Vsevolod a huge united state. But Monomakh died, Mstislav passed away, and from 1132. Russia finally collapsed.

The emergence of three centers of power

In the middle of the XII century. civil strife reached an unprecedented severity, and the number of their participants increased many times due to the fragmentation of princely possessions. At that time in Russia there were 15 principalities and separate lands; in the next century, on the eve of the Batu invasion, there were already 50, and during the reign of Ivan Kalita, the number of principalities of various ranks exceeded two and a half hundred. After the death of Mstislav the Great, one principality after another falls away from Kyiv. The year 1136 was marked by a real political upheaval in Novgorod the Great: Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich was accused by the "men of Novgorod" of cowardice, a negligent attitude towards the defense of the city, and also that a year earlier he wanted to change Novgorod to the more honorable Pereyaslavl. For two months, the prince, his children, wife and mother-in-law were in custody, after which they were expelled. Since that time, the Novgorod boyars themselves began to invite princes to themselves and finally freed themselves from the power of Kyiv.

After Lyubech Congress for princes, they are hereditary fatherlands, the prosperity of which should be taken care of most of all. From now on, if the prince looks longingly at Kyiv, then often without breaking off relations with his fatherland, the source of his power. At the same time, the struggle for the Kyiv table is often conducted not because some prince seeks to go there, but in order to prevent the rise of rivals. That is why the victorious princes in Kyiv plant their deputies, not wanting to leave their family nests. Near princely domain there are estates of boyars, senior combatants. They turn into feudal landowners, whose interests are closely connected with local ownership. From now on, not a tribute, but the income received from the estates, become their main means of subsistence. Land ownership under feudalism is a source of political and social strength, and the princes can no longer ignore their boyars. It is easy to see that all of the above is the result of the development of feudal relations.

The pressure from the steppe shifts the border to the north: Kyiv loses its central position, turns into an outpost of the struggle against the Polovtsians. The population begins to leave the Kiev and neighboring regions in search of safe places, inaccessible to steppe nomads. One stream of migration rushes to the northeast, to the distant Zalesky region; the other goes to the southwest, to the Galician-Volyn lands. In the Middle Ages, population density and economic prosperity were interrelated concepts, so the movement of the population had a negative impact on the position of the center. The Polovtsy, having established themselves along the lower reaches of the Dnieper, undermined trade with Byzantium and the East. " The path from the Varangians to the Greeks ' is in decline. But the final blow was dealt to him by the displacement of world trade routes. The northern Italian cities, which were rapidly gaining strength, were taking trade with the East into their own hands. This does not pass without a trace for the ancient Russian cities. The future was for those cities that managed to find their place, to establish themselves on new paths. Novgorod focuses on trade with North German cities. Another route, bypassing Kyiv, ran through the relatively safe Galicia. Ancient Russia is losing its role as a participant and mediator in trade relations between the Byzantine, Western European and Eastern worlds.

The changes were reflected in the minds of the princes. Many of them no longer regard the defense of the Russian land as a common cause. Hence the endless strife between the princes. But at the same time they are a reflection of the economic and political isolation of the lands, a change in the orientation of fortified cities and feudal clans. The local prince, firmly settled in his own fatherland, suited them much more than the ruler of the Kievan state. He could better and more fully express the interests of the land. He took care to transfer it not to a stranger, a foreign prince, but to his direct heirs. In the isolated principalities - new political and economic centers - handicrafts developed faster, construction was more intensive, culture flourished. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav, the Kyiv land began to disintegrate into independent political entities - destinies. By the middle of the XII century. there were 15 of them. Half a century later - already about 50. The largest were Vladimir-Suzdal , Galicia-Volyn principality And Novgorod land . These lands managed to maintain a single state territory for quite a long time, which predetermined their decisive political importance in comparison with other principalities. All of them had known differences in political structure. Various ratios political elements and determined the originality of the lands.

• In the north-east of Russia, power was concentrated in the hands of the prince. He managed to rise above the boyars, turning them into obedient executors of his will, and above the vech. With great power Vladimir-Suzdal princes strove for sovereignty. It is no coincidence that they were the first who tried to embark on the path of uniting the lands, overcoming feudal fragmentation: it was this authoritarian type of power that was most suitable for solving this problem.
• The South Russian princes faced the traditionally strong and united boyars. The struggle went on with varying success. But even at the moments of the highest successes, the South Russian princes had to reckon with the interests of the boyars. Here the ratio of the prince - the boyars was not so tangible in favor of the first, as in the northeast.
• Ancient Russia knew not only monarchies, but also republics. The main one is the Novgorod Republic. Here, the state structure and even real politics were determined by the powerful Novgorod boyars and a strong veche. The prince's influence was limited. He acted primarily as a military guard and defender of the Novgorod borders.

With the collapse of the Old Russian state into destinies, the consciousness of the unity of the Russian land was not lost. The principalities continued to live according to the general laws of Russian Pravda, within the framework of one Orthodox metropolis, united in culture and language. There was a kind of federation of Russian principalities, sometimes capable of joint action. However, in general, the disintegration into destinies and strife had a detrimental effect on military power. At the same time, fragmentation itself is the result of the upward development of feudalism. Associated with it is the strengthening of the economy, the growth of cities, and the development of culture. It is not difficult to see the contradictory nature of the consequences of fragmentation.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

North-Eastern Russia was the outskirts of the Kievan state, a distant Zalesky region. The Slavs arrived here relatively late, having faced mainly the Finno-Ugric population. From the northwest to the Volga-Oka interfluve in the 9th-10th centuries. Ilmen Slovenes came, from the west - Krivichi, from the south-west - Vyatichi. Remoteness and isolation predetermined the slower pace of development and Christianization of the local areas. There were almost no cities in the northeast. Initially, the capital of the land was Rostov, which arose as a tribal center of the Vyatichi. The northeastern lands were inferior in fertility to the southern lands. But the Slavs also found their advantages here: rich water meadows, a wide open field - podzolic fertile fields near forests, forests themselves, countless lakes, lakes and rivers. Despite the harsher climate in comparison with the Dnieper region, it was possible to obtain relatively stable crops here, which, together with fishing, cattle breeding, and forestry, ensured their existence. Trade routes stretching across the northeast contributed to the growth of cities. In the XI century. Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, Ryazan appear near Rostov. Colonization flows strengthened as the threat in the south from the nomads increased. The former shortcomings of the region - its remoteness and wildness - turned into indisputable advantages. The region was populated by immigrants from the south. The princes themselves rather late turned their attention to the Zalessky region - the thrones in the local cities were of little prestige, prepared for the younger princes in the family. Only under Vladimir Monomakh, at the end of the unity of Kievan Rus, did the gradual rise of North-Eastern Rus begin. Vladimir-Suzdal Rus became the hereditary "fatherland" of the Monomakhoviches. Strong ties were established between the local lands-volosts and the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, here, earlier than in other lands, they got used to perceive the sons and grandsons of Monomakh as their princes. The influx of population, which caused intensive economic activity, the growth and emergence of new cities, predetermined the economic and political rise of the region. In the dispute for power, the Rostov-Suzdal princes had significant resources at their disposal.

Many cities owed their origin to the activity of princes. Veche traditions were not so strong in them and attachment to princes turned out to be stronger. The encroachment of the land determined the later migration flows: farmers settled on princely land, so that tributary relations arose immediately. The local boyars, which grew out of the tribal nobility, with rare exceptions, were not strong. The new boyars came along with the Monomakhoviches and received land from their hands. All this created the conditions for the emergence of a strong princely power, characteristic of this part of Ancient Russia. But the local princes themselves, who turned out to be ambitious and powerful people, put a lot of effort into this. Rostov-Suzdal Prince Yuri Vladimirovich (1125-1157), the son of Vladimir Monomakh, dreamed of the throne of Kiev all his life. Hence his nickname Dolgoruky. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, the Rostov-Suzdal principality turned into a vast and independent. It no longer sends its squads to the south to fight the Polovtsy. For them, the struggle with the Volga Bulgaria, which tried to control all trade on the Volga, was much more important. Yuri Vladimirovich went on campaigns against the Bulgars, fought with Novgorod for small, but strategically and commercially important border lands. This was an independent, without regard to Kyiv, policy that turned Dolgoruky in the eyes of the inhabitants of Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir into his prince. The name of the prince is associated with the founding of new cities in the region - Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Yuryev-Polsky and the first annalistic mention of Moscow under 1147 Then he feasted here with his ally, Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Olgovich. The first time he could not resist and was expelled. In 1155, he fulfilled his cherished dream and became a prince of Kiev, but soon died.

Historians have long emphasized the convention of this date, which is correlated with the founding of Moscow. Already one logical conclusion - Dolgoruky's invitation to his guest not from scratch - makes one doubt the usual interpretation of the annalistic news. Yuri Dolgoruky twice occupied the throne of Kyiv. When did the ancient Russian city of Moscow really arise? Archaeologists argued about how the oldest layers of Moscow are dated. Some historians have spoken of the 11th and even the 10th centuries. However, studies of recent decades have shown that in Moscow there is no cultural layer older than the first third - the middle of the 12th century. In other words, in 1147 the town of Moscow found itself on the pages of the chronicle two or three decades after its inception. About Moscow XII-XIII centuries. Chronicles mention very rarely. Therefore, only thanks to archaeological work, it is possible to lift the veil of mystery over the early period of the city's history. The oldest core of Moscow was located on the cape of Borovitsky Hill, at the confluence of the Neglinnaya and Moscow Rivers.

The heyday of North-Eastern Russia fell on the reign of the sons of Yuri Dolgoruky - Andrei and Vsevolod Yuryevich. The age difference between the half-brothers was almost forty years, and when the name of Andrei thundered throughout Russia, Vsevolod took only the first steps in the princely career. Andrey Bogolyubsky was already a typical prince of the era of feudal fragmentation. With all his thoughts he was with the northeastern land, where he grew up and which he revered as his homeland. Yuri Dolgoruky, apparently, wanted to transfer the throne of Kyiv to him, therefore he kept it next to him, in Vyshgorod near Kyiv. But Andrei disobeyed his father and fled to Vladimir. From Vyshgorod, he took the miraculous icon of the Mother of God, painted, according to legend, by the evangelist Luke himself. In his political activity Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to rely not on Suzdal, and even more so not on Rostov, where the local boyar clans were strong, but on the relatively young Vladimir. There were no strong veche traditions here, the population, which competed with the old cities, more willingly supported the prince. The shift in emphasis in political life is reflected by historians in the title: Rostov-Suzdal Rus gives way to Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. Near Vladimir, the prince also founded his residence Bogolyubovo. According to legend, during his flight from Vyshgorod, at the entrance to Vladimir, the horses suddenly stood up. The “Mother of God”, which should have been transported to Rostov, the center of the diocese, chose Vladimir as her place of residence, about which Andrei had a vision. The icon consecrated Vladimir (hence its name - the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God), predicted his exaltation; on the place where she showed her will, Bogolyubovo was founded. Another phenomenon characteristic of the spiritual life of society in the 12th century goes back to this legend. Asserting his independence, Andrei Bogolyubsky also tried to gain a certain religious independence from the old lands. In the northeast, the Mother of God cult acquires special strength - the Mother of God opens her cover over North-Eastern Russia, becomes her intercessor and protector. Of course, the Mother of God was highly revered in all corners of Orthodox Russia. But we should not forget that the cathedral (main) cathedrals in Kyiv and Novgorod were built in honor of St. Sophia, and in Vladimir it was the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin. Within the framework of the religious worldview, this means a certain opposition, emphasizing the difference. Andrei Bogolyubsky generally sought to achieve church independence from Kyiv. He turned to Constantinople with a request to raise Metropolitan Fyodor of Rostov to the rank of Metropolitan of Vladimir. But the division of the Kiev Metropolis did not meet the interests of Byzantium. A ban followed. The prince achieved only the transfer of the episcopal diocese from Rostov to Vladimir.

Andrei Bogolyubsky gained a reputation as a brave and successful warrior. In his many wars, he knew both victories and failures. In 1164, the prince defeated the Volga Bulgaria; five years later, his troops took Kyiv. Andrei did not even express a desire to take advantage of his victory and establish himself on the throne. But the city was subjected to a brutal pogrom: the winners acted in full accordance with the logic of specific wars - having won, by all means weaken their rival. The prince began by driving his brothers from the Rostov-Suzdal tables. Subsequently, relatives dependent on him ruled under his supervision, not daring to disobey anything. This made it possible for the prince to temporarily consolidate North-Eastern Russia. It was not easy for the boyars either. He easily transgressed through it, cracking down on unwanted people and taking away property. A conspiracy was drawn up against the prince, uniting all the dissatisfied. In 1174, in Bogolyubov, the conspirators succeeded in carrying out their plans - the unarmed prince fell under their blows.

In the struggle for power, even close family ties did not always matter. Andrei Bogolyubsky looked at his younger brother as an unwanted rival, and he had to endure a lot from him. With the death of Andrei Yurievich, the situation changed. Vsevolod got the opportunity to fight for the throne of Vladimir. He did not immediately manage to establish himself in Vladimir. The conspirators, out of fear of revenge and the power-hungry inclinations of Andrei's brothers, looked for more complaisant princes. But Yaropolk Rostislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, who had established himself in Vladimir, very soon made the local residents feel the difference with the former princes. He looked at the new reign as a temporary refuge. This led to a conflict with the Vladimirites. Vladimirians are ready to support not just a prince, but their permanent prince-patrimony, who would protect his possessions for his family. In their eyes, such princes were the children of Yuri, who really looked at the Vladimir-Suzdal lands as their hereditary ones. Michael, as the eldest, sat in Vladimir, but did not rule for long - in 1176 he died, and the people of Vladimir called him to the throne Vsevolod Yurievich (1176-1212).

The new Prince of Vladimir was very different from Andrei Yurievich. It was a prince hot, impatient, quick-tempered. Vsevolod, no less than his half-brother, craved power, but he was cautious and prudent. Andrei and Vsevolod Yurievich complemented each other: one laid, the other continued and strengthened the traditions of princely autocracy, which largely determined the future historical fate Northeast Russia. Vsevolod expelled all his nephews. Kievan and Ryazan princes turned out to be dependent on Vsevolod. Novgorod, which preferred to maintain friendly relations with the most powerful princes, began to invite the prince of Vladimir to reign. Vsevolod cared about the prosperity of his fatherland. With him went active construction, the inhabitants of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality began to wean themselves from inter-princely strife. The boyars, which raised their heads after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, were again brought to submission. Vsevolod, more than other princes, relied on younger combatants. During the long reign of Vsevolod, few dared to challenge him. At the beginning of the XIII century. Prince Mstislav Udaloy, a native of the Smolensk princely house, tried to challenge the rights of Vsevolod in Novgorod. In Russia, Mstislav early gained a reputation as a skilled warrior, a daring warrior. Having support among part of the Novgorod boyars, he began to lay claim to the Novgorod reign. Supporters of Mstislav the Udaly, due to the discontent of the Novgorodians, were forced to temporarily abandon their plans. Protecting their liberties, in 1209 they expelled the sons of Vsevolod and called for the reign of Mstislav the Udaly. The death of Vsevolod Yurievich in 1212 showed how fragile the public entities specific period.

A.M. Vasnetsov. Construction of the wooden walls of the Kremlin. 12th century (1906)

Galicia-Volyn Rus

The Galicia-Volyn land was rapidly rising due to the same reasons as the marginal North-Eastern Russia. Important trade routes passed through it - to the Danube, to Central and Southern Europe, Byzantium. This contributed to the growth of cities, such as Galich, who became rich in the salt trade. The relative remoteness from the nomads affected, which influenced the direction of migration flows from the Dnieper region. But there were also significant differences. In the south-west of Russia lived a wealthy and independent boyars, whose ambitions were reinforced by constant communication with the masterful aristocracy neighboring countries. Cities behaved more independently, the population of which could sit behind strong fortifications both from princely wrath and from foreign troops. Unlike the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the Galician land was constantly subjected to invasions by Polish and Hungarian feudal lords. As a result, the prince had to look for military support and encourage the strengthening of the boyars, who, in turn, could fight for their rights with great success and limit the power of the prince. In the south, princes from various lines of Yaroslavich ruled. This gave the princely strife a special urgency. In the second half of the XII century. the most powerful was the Galician principality, on the throne of which sat Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). But after his death, strife began, and with the death of his energetic son Vladimir, the dynasty of Galician princes came to an end. In 1199, Volyn prince took possession of the principality Roman Mstislavich, uniting Volhynia and Galicia under his rule. Roman Mstislavich, throughout his reign, waged constant wars with Hungary, Poland, went on campaigns to Lithuania and tirelessly fought against the boyars. But he failed to overcome boyar self-will and separatism. After the death of the prince, the boyars drove away his young sons and hurried to call on the sons of Igor Seversky (the hero of The Tale of Igor's Campaign), nephews of Vladimir Yaroslavich, in the hope of making them obedient executors of their will. The Igoreviches, however, showed their strong temper, began reprisals against the boyars. In response, they called on the Hungarians. Two of Igor's three sons were captured and hanged. In 1211, the Galicians returned for a while the exiled son of Roman Mstislavich - Daniel. But this time, he did not sit still. Instead, the boyar Vladislav sat on the princely table. This enthronement of a person who does not belong to the princely family of Rurikovich is the only case in the entire history of Ancient Russia.

events were increasingly influenced by Daniel Romanovich- a talented and brave warrior who fought both with the Tatars on Kalka and with Teutonic Order. At the end of the 20s. he united the Volyn lands, and then Galicia. In the struggle against the dominance of the boyars, he relies on the small service people, the younger squad, and the urban population. Under Daniil Romanovich, Kholm, Lvov and other cities were built. In 1240 Galicia-Volyn land survived the invasion of the Mongols. But Daniel did everything to prevent new raids. In 1245, he managed to defeat the combined forces of the Hungarians, Poles and Galician boyars in the battle near Yaroslavl. An attempt to destroy the unity of Galicia-Volyn Rus ended in failure. But it was only a temporary reprieve. With the death of Daniel in the presence of his sons and grandsons, centrifugal forces take over, especially since Southwestern Russia, weakened by the invasion, could not resist strong neighbors. The Galicia-Volyn principality did not just disintegrate, it was literally pulled apart in “pieces”: Volyn was under the rule of Lithuania, Galicia submitted to Poland.

Mr Veliky Novgorod

The most extensive Russian possession in the specific era was Novgorod land, which included the suburbs of Novgorod - Pskov, Staraya Russa, Velikiye Luki, Torzhok, Ladoga, vast northern and eastern territories, where mainly Finno-Ugric tribes lived. By the end of the XII century. Novgorod belonged to Perm, Pechora, Ugra (a region on both slopes of the Northern Urals). Novgorod dominated the most important trade routes. Merchant caravans from the Dnieper went along the Lovat across Lake Ilmen along the Volkhov to Ladoga; here the path forked - along the Neva to the Baltic, to Sweden, Denmark, to the Hansa - the trade union of the North German cities; along the Svir and Sheksna to the Volga to the northeastern principalities, to Bulgaria and further to the east. For Novgorod, a city of trade and crafts, such a location was vital. Novgorod has always occupied a special place in the history of Kievan Rus. He competed with Kiev for a long time. True, Kyiv gained the upper hand, but Novgorod managed to maintain a certain isolation and independence. Princely power has never been strong here and depended on the position of the Novgorod "husbands". In Novgorod, there was a tradition of concluding an agreement with the prince. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the boyars ensured that the governors (in Novgorod they were called posadniks) were not sent from Kyiv, but were chosen at a veche from among the Novgorodians. In 1136, having expelled the objectionable prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, the Novgorodians made the veche their supreme authority and began to call on the prince they liked to reign. Novgorod turned, in essence, into a medieval republic. Such a peculiar development of Novgorod history has encouraged and continues to encourage researchers to explain it. It is clear that the reasons should be sought in the peculiarities of the socio-economic and political way of life of Novgorodians. A more severe climate and poor soils gave low yields here even in comparison with central Russia. Novgorod often, especially in lean years, found itself dependent on the northeastern principalities - suppliers of bread. The Vladimir-Suzdal princes quickly learned this simple truth and, not having the strength to conquer the Novgorodians by force, frightened them with hunger - a grain blockade. It does not follow from this that rural population did not engage in farming. In the vast possessions of the Novgorod boyars lived hundreds of smerds, employed rural labor. Cattle breeding, horticulture and horticulture were relatively developed. Nature itself, with its numerous rivers and vast forests, encouraged Novgorodians to craft. Furs, "fish tooth" - walrus bone, even exotic hunting falcons and many other natural resources - all this made them go to the taiga and the polar tundra. The Novgorodians forced the Finno-Ugric tribes to pay tribute. However, relations between them developed relatively peacefully - with the payment of tribute, bargaining began with the Novgorodians, which gave much-needed goods. Novgorodians brought agriculture and cattle breeding to the north, thus influencing the way of life of local tribes.

Novgorod itself early became a major trade and craft center. Archaeological excavations have revealed a multi-meter cultural layer in the center of the city. By the XIII century. it was a large, well-organized, comfortable and fortified city, spread out on both sides of the Volkhov. The sides - Trade and Sofia - were connected by the Great Bridge, which, however, played a role not only connecting, but also separating. Warring parties often converged on it to sort things out, and from the bridge to the Volkhov, the rebellious Novgorodians threw rulers they did not like. The population of the city was made up of artisans of various specialties. Just listing them would make a solid list. The craft was quite specialized, which made it possible to produce goods that went far beyond the city. Other craftsmen left signatures on their products: “Costa did”, “Bratilo did”. The craft character of the city was also reflected in its toponymy. The city was divided into ends, one of which was called Carpentry. Many streets got their names according to the professions of the artisans who settled here - Shieldnaya, Goncharnaya, Kuznetskaya, etc. The artisans brought their products to the crowded auction. Researchers have not come to a consensus on whether the Novgorod artisans had workshops similar to those in Western Europe. Apparently, some rudiments of associations on a professional basis existed. This not only facilitated handicraft activities, but also made it possible to defend the interests of artisans in state affairs. Undoubtedly, the artisans were richer and more organized in Novgorod in comparison with other cities of Russia. Hence their greater weight at the veche.

Trade played an important role in the life of the city. Its geography was very diverse - from Kyiv, Byzantium to Central and Northern Europe. In the city itself there were foreign trading yards - German and Gothic. In turn, the Novgorod merchants had courts in other principalities and countries - Kyiv, Lubeck, on the island of Gotland.

The Novgorod merchant class was not only an economic, but also a political force. It had its own corporate associations - guilds. Wealthy merchants at the church of Ivan on Opochki established their own council with elected officials, had their own treasury - in a word, all the necessary elements of self-government to protect their interests. The Novgorod boyars trace their origins to the local tribal nobility. It managed to defend its isolation from the princes. Early birch bark documents showed that state taxes in the Novgorod land were collected not by the prince and his retinue during the polyud, as was the case in other areas, but by the boyars themselves. The prince, on the basis of the contract, received the part of the income due to him. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that it was not the boyars who fed from the hands of the prince, but the prince from the hands of the boyars. Thus, the boyars created an economic advantage for themselves, which subsequently served as the basis for the political advantage in conflicts with the princes. The boyars became large landowners. The size of their estates exceeded the size of other principalities. However, the boyars themselves preferred to live in the city and often engaged in trading operations. In the vast estates of the boyars lived many artisans who found themselves in debt bondage to their masters. The interests of the city and the boyars were closely intertwined.

A.M. Vasnetsov. "Novgorodsky Torg"

Another feature of the Novgorod boyars is their isolation, corporatism. Unlike the rest of the lands of Ancient Russia, where one could rise to the rank of boyars, in Novgorod this title was hereditary. As a result, 30-40 boyar families occupied a leading position in the political life of the city. This does not mean that there were no feudal lords of non-Yar origin in the republic. This category was rather motley, among them there were many large landowners. They were called "living people". Performing various functions, including military ones, "living people" also sought to influence events. Both the boyars and the “living people” used the labor of smerds in their possessions. By the time of the conflict with the princely authorities, the position of the latter had been seriously undermined. In the fight against the strong boyars, the prince could not rely either on the inhabitants of the city - "black people", or on the church. In Novgorod, an acute internal struggle was in full swing, the people more than once took up arms against the boyars, merchants and usurers, but as soon as a threat arose from the prince, all Novgorodians acted unitedly. And the point here is not only in traditions: in the representation of all segments of the population, the existing order more fully met their interests. Many-voiced, valued vechem, they laid down their lives for it, they boasted of it in reproach to the rest, who dutifully bowed before the princely power. For Novgorod, the calling of the prince to the throne became characteristic. At the same time, his appearance was formalized by an agreement, the violation of which entailed the exile of the prince. The rights of the prince were significantly limited: under the control of the Novgorodians, he was engaged in military affairs, participated in court. The Novgorodians kept a close watch so that the prince did not strengthen his position. The prince was deprived of the right to have land holdings and even more so to grant estates to his entourage. Even the residence of the prince was not in the citadel - the city fortress, but outside it, on the Settlement. One may ask: why did the Novgorodians still need a prince and why did the princes go to reign in Novgorod? In the view of the people of that time, the prince was a military leader, a defender of the frontiers. A professional warrior, he appeared in Novgorod with his people, for whom war was a matter of habit.

In addition, the prince was the recipient of the tribute that was sent to Novgorod. He also resolved many lawsuits, was the highest court. IN real life the prince acted as a symbol of the unity of the republic, equalized it in communication with the surrounding monarchical states. The princes, in turn, were attracted not only by the tribute they received under the contract - the reign in Novgorod opened up new opportunities in communicating with rivals, gave an advantage over neighboring principalities.

The highest authority in Novgorod was veche - National Assembly. The owners of city estates gathered there. Veche called or, on the contrary, drove the princes from the throne, approved the most important decisions. At the veche, the highest officials of the republic were elected - the posadnik, the thousand, the lord (archbishop). Posadnik was the central figure in the administration. He controlled the activities of the prince and communicated with him, the main threads of domestic and foreign policy were concentrated in his hands. Only boyars could be posadniks. The position of the mayor was temporary. After the expiration of the term, they gave way to new ones. Over time, the number of posadniks increased - this reflected the acute internal struggle in the city, the desire of each of the boyar groups to influence the affairs of the republic. Tysyatsky exercised control over the collection of taxes, participated in the commercial court, was one of the leaders of the militia, defended merchants and "living people". The Archbishop of Novgorod possessed not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power. Under his chairmanship, a meeting of posadniks was held. Veche order permeated the entire structure of Novgorod. Five administrative and political units of the city - the ends - bell ringing gathered black people for the Konchan veche. Here, local issues were resolved, the heads of self-government were elected - the Koncha elders. The ends, in turn, were divided into streets with their street elders. Of course, one should not exaggerate veche democracy. She was limited. First of all, the boyars, who concentrated executive power in their hands, led the veche. Novgorod was a feudal republic. Novgorod was not alone. Soon, one of its suburbs, Pskov, was freed from dependence, creating its own sovereign Pskov Republic. Veche orders were strong in Vyatka. All this testifies to the fact that not only autocratic development prospects were present in the national history. However, when the time came for the gathering of lands, Novgorod and Pskov, torn apart by internal contradictions, clashes between black people and the boyars, could not resist the strong and monolithic monarchical power.