Historical Epoch in the Fate of Russian Literature of the Golden Age. Historical eras in order: chronology What ideas inspired the people of that era
The historical epoch in which the creators of the early Russian classics happened to live and which in many ways shaped them was revolutionary, explosive, and heroic. Its meaning was the triumph of enterprise over nobility, individualism over class ethics, novelty over tradition. Ho, bringing hope for the renewal of society, the state and man, this era ended with a deep crisis, a general disappointment in the idea of progress.
As we have already said, it was preceded by the philosophical search of the encyclopedists. And the French Revolution of 1789-1793 laid the immediate start. Now, from our historical distance, it is difficult to understand how global the changes that she brought with her were. If you compare it with something, then not even with an earthquake, but with a grandiose volcanic eruption, after which everything starts to move, everything changes. Where once there were fertile lands, a scorched desert remains, and where there was a wasteland, the springs begin to beat and greenery appears; former peaks disappear, and new mountains are born. And if we switch to a dry, but more precise language of abstract concepts, then the revolution led to a sharp change in historical structures.
So what happened? You know the details from the New History course. And we will only briefly recall the events that had a decisive influence on the development of Russian literature of the first half of XIX century (we will find mention of them in almost all the works that we will read together).
By the early 1790s, the French feudal-aristocratic state had exhausted its possibilities. It literally went bankrupt. King Louis XVI was forced to convene the Estates General, which until then had played no real role. The Estates General declared themselves first the National and then the Constituent Assembly, which was called upon to establish a new state system for bourgeois France, to bring the third estate to power. On July 14, 1789, in response to the king’s attempt to dismiss the deputies home, the elements spilled onto the streets: an uprising began, culminating in the capture of the Bastille prison-fortress and marking the beginning of a new, revolutionary era in the history of France, and indeed of all Europe.
And on August 26 of the same year, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted, proposing simple, clear and generally accessible formulas for a new way of life. “People are born and remain free and equal in rights”, property rights are unshakable and sacred, the personal freedom of a citizen is limited only by the rights of another person. Freedom of opinion was proclaimed, including political and religious, and the rule of law was declared over class privileges. These formulas took into account the postulates of the "Declaration of Independence" of the North American United States - a new state that was formed in 1776 on the site of former European colonies and for the first time challenged all generally accepted state traditions. Both Goethe and Pushkin followed with intense attention what was happening in the North American States at different times.
After the king and his wife Marie Antoinette were executed in January 1793, the revolution finally threw off the liberal mask. The Jacobins - that was the name of the political club whose members came to power in the Convention, an organ of revolutionary self-government - began to destroy their political opponents. Very soon, the dictatorship of the leader of the Jacobins, Robespierre, who eventually fell under the knife of the guillotine himself, led the country into a bloody dead end. She was unexpectedly led out of this impasse by the young Corsican general Napoleon Bonaparte, who took full power into his own hands and, step by step, made his way from a revolutionary dictator (1799) to consul for life (1802), and then crown emperor (1804).
The revolution has returned to the point it left; the republic again gave way to the empire. But it was already another empire, another monarchy. Napoleon seemed to be redirecting revolutionary energy in a new direction. He began the redistribution and conquest of the world; the Napoleonic wars, which redrawn the political map of Europe, struck the imagination of contemporaries. It seemed to them that one person could not do this, that Napoleon had some kind of mystical, supernatural power; many directly called him the Antichrist. One way or another, but in 1811 most of Europe was part of France.
These events took place in the very center of Western Europe. And what was happening in Russia at the same time?
At the end of the 18th century, she tried to fence herself off from revolutionary storms. The last years of the reign of Catherine II the Great (after the suppression Pugachev uprising in 1774) were a time of golden blissful stagnation; never before and never since has the Russian nobility felt so calm and confident. At the same time, the empress herself was well aware that serious changes in state and public life could no longer be avoided. Reassuring the nobility, endowing them with more and more privileges, she secretly considered legislative reforms that would have to overtake the imminent revolution, produce it "from above".
Catherine II pinned her special hopes on her grandson, the future Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich; her plans, however, were destroyed by a sudden death in 1796. Paul I, who reigned after her, could not find mutual language with the nobility, and eventually fell victim to a conspiracy in 1801. Having become an unwitting participant in parricide, Alexander I at the beginning of his reign tried to clear the historical rubble, prepare the ground for serious reforms, but stopped halfway.
There are many reasons for this. One of them is that Alexandrov's Russia from the very beginning entered into a confrontation with Napoleonic France and was forced to spend precious forces on a series of military conflicts of 1805-1807. They ended with the Tilsit peace treaty, humiliating for Russia. But by 1812, when Napoleon declared a new war on her, Russia had managed to accumulate the moral and military forces for victory; The Patriotic War became one of the main events in Russian history. The dates and names of the main battles of 1812 have forever entered Russian cultural use: August 4-5 - the battle for Smolensk, August 26 - the Battle of Borodino, September 1 - council in Fili, September 4-6 - fire in Moscow, November 14-16 - battle near the Berezina River, December 14 - the final exile " great army from Russia and the beginning of the war for the liberation of Europe.
Young officers, who returned from the European campaign and inspired by the victory, hoped that Alexander I would finally fulfill Catherine's dream, start the revolution "from above". But the time allotted by history for peaceful reforms was wasted by the Russian authorities; a series of national liberation uprisings in Europe and Asia Minor in the early 1820s forced Alexander to “freeze” reforms until better times, which, alas, never came.
Young Russian nobles, not waiting for the renewal of the country from the monarchy, they began to unite in secret anti-government societies, the ultimate goal of which was to adopt a constitution and limit autocracy. (Some relied on a republican form of government, others on a constitutional monarchy.) Early organizations - the "Union of Salvation" (1816-1817) and the "Union of Welfare" (1818-1821) were transformed into the Northern and Southern Societies, which on December 14, 1825 organized an armed performance on the Senate Square in St. Petersburg. Blood spilled; the performance was suppressed by troops who remained loyal to the new Tsar Nicholas I.
The reign of Nicholas I, which began tragically, with the suppression of the uprising and the execution of five Decembrists, became one of the most controversial eras in modern Russian history. Possessing a sound mind and a strong character, Nicholas did everything to correct the mistakes of the previous reign. In the second half of the 1820s he waged successful wars in the east of the empire; energetically ruled the country, rigidly defended its interests (as he understood them). But already in 1830-1831 there was a series of military-political upheavals, from which Russia emerged internally weakened and bitter.
In November 1830, an uprising for the independence of Poland broke out in Warsaw, which by the summer of 1831 was brutally suppressed. Russian army. At the same time, peasant riots took place in military settlements; relations with Europe sharply worsened, especially with France. Having inherited a number of insoluble problems from his elder brother Alexander I, Nicholas I hastened to change internal politics Russia, having dealt with the nascent public opinion, tightening censorship, strengthening the power of the state bureaucracy.
The emperor did not delve into the problems facing the thinking part of the non-governmental intelligentsia, he drove social diseases inside. The policy of isolation from the "dangerous" West, infected with revolutionary ideas, ultimately led Russia to a dead end. And the main problem of a multimillion-strong country - serfdom - has not been resolved. The sad result of the reign of Nicholas was shameful for Russian Empire Crimean War (1853-1856).
The social atmosphere that formed the next generation of Russian classics, from Ivan Goncharov to Anton Chekhov, was completely different from the atmosphere of the era that fell to the lot of Karamzin, Pushkin, Gogol. In the 1840s, Russian society (at least the educated part of it) was seized by feelings of disappointment and social apathy; many topical problems could not be discussed aloud - and the writers worked out the Aesopian language, learned to talk about painful things with the help of hints, allegorically. Something similar happened in the West.
A series of social upheavals in France (1830, 1848) eventually led to the restoration of the monarchy: the grandson of Napoleon I Bonaparte, more than conservative Napoleon III, came to power. With the accession of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), the long and opulent Victorian era began in Great Britain - a time of triumph of traditional values that proved their resistance to the onslaught social movements. The Poles' dream of national independence did not come true, the Germans' hopes for the creation of united state from scattered kingdoms. (Only Prince Bismarck, who in 1871 will become Chancellor of Germany, will be able to solve this problem.) Slavic and Finno-Ugric peoples - Serbs, Czechs, Bulgarians, Magyars, Finns - under the influence of romantic ideas and military-political upheavals of the 19th century, realized themselves as full-fledged nations . That is, historical communities of people who are united not only by historical roots, but also by state borders, and literary language, and cultural traditions. However, they never managed to free themselves from foreign domination, did not gain the long-awaited state independence from powerful empires: the Ottoman ports (present-day Turkey), Austria-Hungary, and Russia.
Meanwhile, under the cover of political reaction, both in the West and in Russia, processes that were important and very dangerous for the fate of mankind were taking place. Just as in the second half of the 18th century the third estate, the bourgeois, entered the historical stage, so in the second half of the 19th century the proletariat, the poorest and least qualified part of the working class, declared its claims to a special role in history. The clever and firm leaders of the revolutionary movement took advantage of this. First of all, the outstanding German political economist and philosopher, the author of the monumental work Capital, Karl Marx. The idea of social justice took possession of the minds, and under the slogan of protecting the professional rights of workers, the "Union of Communists" (1847) was created, for which Marx, together with the publicist Friedrich Engels, wrote the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" (1848).
In this Manifesto, for the first time, the task of the revolutionary destruction of the old world order was clearly and clearly stated and a superhistorical goal was proclaimed: the creation of a new civilization, a utopian kingdom of proletarian happiness. Humanity will pay for this dream in the 20th century with tens of millions of innocent lives, bloody upheavals, but already in the 19th century, under the influence of revolutionary ideas, a new phenomenon arose, destructive and not recognizing national borders - terrorism.
Secret terrorist organizations were formed in Russia as well. One of them, "Narodnaya Volya", passed sentence on Emperor Alexander II (he ruled the country from 1855 to 1881). Meanwhile, the king sought to renew the country, rid it of long-term and even centuries-old, chronic diseases. He not only carried out the great Peasant Reform of 1861, abolishing serfdom, but also introduced a system of local self-government (it was called the Zemstvo), reformed the court and the army. After the suppression of the second Polish uprising (1863-1864), Alexander II somewhat slowed down the course of reforms, fearing the growth of radical sentiments. And all the same: it was he who prepared Russia for the new realities of political, economic, intellectual life, which she had to face at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century.
But the revolutionary terrorists cared little for the future of the country; they demanded to change the present - and immediately; the gradual improvement of the Russian order did not suit them, they were steadily pushing Russia towards chaos. Therefore, a number of attempts were made on the life of Alexander II (1866, 1867); since 1879, the secret terrorist organization "Narodnaya Volya" began to hunt for him - and on March 1, 1881, the emperor died at the hands of terrorists. Moreover, according to legend, the tsar was mortally wounded on the very day when he decided to set in motion the constitutional project, which was supposed to introduce constitutional-monarchical rule in autocratic Russia, that is, to change it radically.
So the Russian revolutionaries stopped the peaceful process of state evolution. The next ruler of the country, Alexander III (reign: 1881-1894), recoiled in horror from political reforms, which in his mind were firmly associated with the growth of revolutionary unrest. He managed to "freeze" the revolutionary ferment in Russian society for some time and redirected his state energy from the political to the economic plane. However, having chosen a policy of counter-reforms, strengthening the role of the police, local and central bureaucracy, the tsar involuntarily repeated the mistake of the late Nicholas I: he did not heal the state, but drove the disease inside.
Being a talented and large-scale leader of the country, he hoped that the rapid growth of industry (successes Alexander III and his administrations were very impressive in this area) by itself, without political reforms, will pull up Russia, eliminate the social ground of anti-government mentality. The tsar wanted to raise the patriotic spirit of the population, relying on officers, merchants, prosperous peasants, merchants ...
But as a result, the Russian revolutionaries only hid, learned the art of conspiracy and began preparing for the coming upheavals. The revolutionary movement has long become an international phenomenon: in the late 1860s, the International organization arose, which coordinated the activities of labor movements in different countries. Hopes that internal Russian measures would be able to put out the world fire forever were naive. As for patriotic ideas, during the reign of Alexander III the fine line between healthy national feeling and morbid nationalism was often broken; Jewish pogroms broke out more than once in the south.
Important events also took place outside the European continent; one of the main ones is the US Civil War (1861-1865) between North and South. The southerners were in favor of maintaining the principles of slavery, the northerners were against it; meaning civil war there was a struggle for the path that America would take in the 20th century, the path of individual rights and civil liberties, or the path of slavery and racism ...
Such was the historical background of the literary achievements, the study of which we have to study.
4. Main events political history
The political history of the Seleucids was determined by the main factors mentioned above. Already Antiochus I had to conduct military operations both in Asia Minor and in southern Syria. In Asia Minor, he defeated the Galatians (278-277 BC), for which he received the title of "Savior" (Soter). War elephants played the most important role in this victory. Less successful was his war with the Ptolemies (First Syrian war-274–271 AD BC e.). Although Antiochus's ally, the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonat, managed to neutralize the actions of the powerful Egyptian fleet, Antiochus, who waged a land war, failed to achieve any serious success. Ptolemy II retained all his possessions in southern Syria and even expanded his zone of influence in Asia Minor. By the end of the reign of Antiochus I, Pergamum became completely independent.
In the reign of Antiochus II - the successor of Antiochus I - the Second Syrian War broke out. Information about her in the sources is extremely fragmentary. Antiochus II managed to somewhat expand the boundaries of his possessions in Asia Minor and South Syria. At this time, the situation in the East changed dramatically. Around 250 BC e. there is a falling away from the central government of Bactria and Parthia. The reasons for this lie in the change in the general line of the Seleucid policy. Seleucus I and Antiochus I paid great attention to these areas. New cities were actively built here, the borders were strengthened, for example, a wall was built that surrounded the entire Merv oasis. However, in the future, the center of gravity of the Seleucid policy shifted to the West and the eastern satrapies began to be considered by the government only as an object of exploitation, obtaining funds for conducting an active policy in the West. The Greek and Macedonian population of these satrapies could not come to terms with this, since the situation here was also quite complicated (the threat of nomadic invasions, the growth of discontent among the local population), and further continuation of the short-sighted, from their point of view, policy of draining money and human resources could lead to disaster - the fall of the power of the Greek-Macedonians in these satrapies. The fate of the fallen satrapies develops in different ways. An independent kingdom is created on the territory of Bactria, which is usually called Greco-Bactria. In Parthia, the development of the political situation was sharply complicated by the intervention of the nomads of the Parnian confederation. Parns led by Arshak invaded Parthia. In the ensuing struggle, the satrap Andragora died, and the satrapy came under the rule of Arshak. Thus, two independent states appeared on the eastern territories that previously belonged to the Seleucids.
The Seleucid state experienced very severe upheavals at the very end of the reign of Antiochus II. When the king, at the end of the Second Syrian War, concluded a peace treaty with Egypt, as a guarantee of friendship between the two states, a marriage was concluded between Antiochus and Ptolemy's daughter Berenice. In order to marry an Egyptian princess, Antiochus had to divorce his first wife, Laodice, with whom he already had two sons. After the death of Antiochus II, a fierce dynastic struggle begins between the supporters of Laodice and Berenice. Berenice and her newly born son were killed, and Laodice's son Seleucus II had no rivals. However, Ptolemy intervenes in this struggle and the so-called Third Syrian War, or "War of Laodice", begins. Taking advantage of the dynastic strife that reigned in the Seleucid state, Ptolemy captures all the most important cities in Syria, including the capital of the state, Antioch on the Orontes. Seleucus II (246-225 BC) with great difficulty managed to restore his power. Based on an alliance with the rulers of Pontus and Cappadocia, he recaptured most of the cities captured by Egypt. However, he failed to return Seleucia in Pieria - the main base of the Seleucid fleet - and the port of Antioch on the Orontes. The further reign of Seleucus II was filled with a struggle with his younger brother Antiochus Hierax ("vulture"), who claimed power in the state. In the end, Hierax was killed by his own mercenaries, and Seleucus II soon died.
After the brief reign of Seleucus III, the throne passed to the youngest son of Seleucus II, Antiochus III (223-187 BC). The time of his reign is the time of the highest rise of the Seleucid state, but at the same time the beginning of its fall. The political situation in the first years of the reign of Antiochus III was very difficult. In Asia Minor, power belonged to Achaeus, a relative of Antiochus, who apparently had some reason to claim the royal title. He, however, ceded the throne to Antiochus without a fight, receiving in return power over Asia Minor, which he ruled as an independent ruler. In the East, the satrap of Media Molon and his brother Alexander, the satrap of Persia, rebelled against the central government.
Having suppressed the rebellion of Molon, Antiochus III was able to act in the south, the Fourth Syrian War (219-217 BC) began. The Seleucid army returned Seleucia to Pieria, military operations were successfully deployed in Phoenicia and Palestine. However, in a decisive battle at Raphia (217 BC), the Seleucid army was completely defeated. As a result, Antiochus III lost all acquisitions in Syria, with the exception of Seleucia in Pieria.
In the years that followed, Antiochus III led military operations in Asia Minor, where he eventually succeeded in crushing the power of Achaea. Achaeus himself was captured during the siege of Sardis and put to a painful execution. Having thus consolidated his power, Antiochus III launched the famous eastern campaign (212-205 BC), the purpose of which was to restore the power of the Seleucids over the lost eastern provinces. Media served as the base for this campaign. To obtain money, on the orders of Antiochus, the temple of Anahita in Ecbatana was robbed, which gave a huge amount of 4,000 talents. The result of the campaign was the conquest of Parthia and Greco-Bactria, which, however, retained their statehood as vassal kingdoms in relation to the Seleucids. Then the army of Antiochus crossed the Hindu Kush and invaded India; an agreement was concluded with the local king Sophagasen, according to which Antiochus received Indian war elephants. The Seleucid army made its way back through the territory of Southern Iran. Antiochus strengthened the position of his state in the Persian Gulf, from Persia he carried out an expedition to Arabia. Antiochus himself attached such great importance to this campaign that after its completion he took the title of "Great".
After the end of this campaign, Antiochus III again returned to the problem of relations with the Ptolemies. Based on an alliance with Macedonia, Antiochus was able to capture southern Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine, and somewhat later a number of cities belonging to the Ptolemies in Asia Minor.
It was at this time that Antiochus III encountered Rome. Before that, he had already captured Thrace and supported all those in Greece who were dissatisfied with the Roman power. The Romans began, in turn, to prepare for a confrontation with Antiochus. A period of diplomatic and propagandistic confrontation lasted for some time. Roman diplomacy turned out to be more successful: Pergamon, Rhodes and, most importantly, Macedonia, which had recently been defeated by the Romans, and Antiochus especially counted on its support, became allies of Rome. In 192 BC. e. direct military clashes began. They took place on the territory of Greece, where the Seleucid army landed. However, miscalculations in the policy of Antiochus III led to the fact that only the Aetolians became his allies. The army of Antiochus III was defeated at Thermopylae. The war was moved to Asia Minor. Here Antiochus was finally defeated at the Battle of Magnesia on Maeander (190 BC). Unable to resist further, he accepted the conditions dictated by the Romans: he renounced almost all Seleucid possessions in Asia Minor, all warships (except 10) and war elephants were given to Rome. In addition, within 12 years it was necessary to pay Rome a huge indemnity of 15 thousand talents.
Experiencing extreme financial difficulties, Antiochus III decided to remedy the situation in an already tried and tested way: to rob the local temples in Elimande, which caused an uprising of the local population, during which Antiochus himself died. The disintegration of the state recreated by Antiochus III began immediately. Greco-Bactria and Parthia again separated from the Seleucid state, Persis fell away, unrest began in many areas.
From the book Jews in Mstislavl. Materials for the history of the city. the author Tsypin VladimirPart 14. Main events in the history of Mstislavl and its Jewish community
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authorThe main events of life 1728 - I. I. Polzunov was born in the Urals. 1748 - I. I. Polzunov arrived with a group of Ural mining specialists at Kolyvano - Resurrection factories of Altai. 1754 - I. I. Polzunov creates in Zmeinogorsk the first hydropower plant in Russia
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of life 1866 - Nine-year-old K. E. Tsiolkovsky fell ill with scarlet fever and, due to complications in his ears, almost lost his hearing. 1873 - Father sent K. E. Tsiolkovsky to Moscow for self-education and improvement. 1879 - K. E. Tsiolkovsky passed as an external student
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of the life of 1816 - N. I. Lobachevsky, at the age of 23, becomes a professor. 1816–1817. - N. I. Lobachevsky first approached the question of the axiom of parallels. 1819 - N. I. Lobachevsky was elected dean of Kazan University. 1822 - N. I. Lobachevsky
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of life 1821 - P. L. Chebyshev was born. 1837 - P. L. Chebyshev became a student at Moscow University. 1847 - P. L. Chebyshev was invited to
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of life 1850 - S. V. Kovalevskaya was born. 1869 - S. V. Kovalevskaya settled in Heidelberg, where she persistently studied science. 1874 - The famous mathematician K. Weierstrass filed a petition for the award
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of life 1862 - A. A. Inostrantsev entered St. Petersburg University at the Department of Natural Sciences of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. 1867 - A. A. Inostrantsev graduated from the university and took up his Ph.D.
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of life 1859 - N. V. Sklifosovsky graduated from the medical faculty of Moscow University. 1863 - N. V. Sklifosovsky defended his thesis for the degree of Doctor of Medicine. 1866 - N. V. Sklifosovsky was sent abroad for two years. 1866 - N.V.
From the book Russian scientists and inventors author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichThe main events of life 1861 - Eighteen-year-old K. A. Timiryazev entered St. Petersburg University. 1868 - K. A. Timiryazev made his first experiments on air nutrition of plants, which he reported at the I Congress of Naturalists in St. Petersburg. 1868 - K. A.
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From the book Golden Horde: myths and reality author Egorov Vadim LeonidovichThe main stages of the political history of the Golden Horde Having completed the bloody aggressive campaigns, the Mongol detachments, weighed down by huge convoys with looted goods and countless crowds of prisoners, settled at the end of 1242 in the vast steppes between the Danube and the Ob. New
Rejection of traditional Christian notions of purpose human life, about the structure of society Creation of a completely new, non-religious picture of the world The idea of history as a progressive movement towards the public good, that is, towards PROGRESS
Particular popularity of the Encyclopedia in Russia years - 29 collections (St. Petersburg, Moscow) In France, the Encyclopedia was read and discussed by provincial nobles, wealthy bourgeois, notaries, and teachers. It is these sections of society that will play the most prominent role in the preparation of the French Revolution.
2. AND HISTORICAL EPOCH French Revolution years "Declaration of the rights of man and citizen" Jacobins - political club Convention - body of revolutionary self-government Robespierre
Russia Catherine II Great Pavel I Alexander I Russia enters into a military confrontation with Napoleonic France years Tilsit peace treaty 1812
Secret anti-government societies Their goal is to adopt a constitution and limit autocracy "Union of Salvation" () "Union of Welfare" () Northern and Southern Societies December 14, 1825, Senate Square in St. Petersburg - armed uprising
The reign of Nicholas I The uprising for the independence of Poland, years, Warsaw Peasant riots Censorship Strengthening the power of the state bureaucracy Serfdom Crimean War ()
The proletariat enters the historical stage "Capital" Karl Marx "Union of Communists" (1847) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels "Manifesto of the Communist Party" (1848). Revolutionary destruction of the old world order, creation of a new civilization, a utopian kingdom of proletarian happiness Terrorism "People's Will". Alexander II () Peasant reform of 1861 Local self-government system (zemstvo) Reform of the court, army March 1, 1881 Alexander III ()
International (late 1860s) American Civil War ()
3. CULTURE AND ECONOMY The development of capitalism individual qualities. Dependence on money. Wealth becomes an instrument of power. Money is starting to rule the world. Literary studies became an independent profession. Writers have become dependent on reader demand for their books.
TECHNICAL DISCOVERIES 1783 - balloon flight of the Montgolfier brothers Early 19th century - the first paddle steamer was built 1825 - the first Railway 1831 - Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction - the first round-the-world trip led by I.F. Kruzenshtern - Russian explorers and sailors first went to the shores of Antarctica
1863 - the world's first underground line was launched (London) 1876 - American Alexander Bell received a patent for a telephone 1897 - Alexander Popov begins work on creating a wireless telegraph American Thomas Edison improved the telegraph and telephone, invented the phonograph (1879) German engineer Rudolf Diesel created an engine internal combustion German designer Count Zeppelin - airship The Eiffel Tower in Paris is a symbol of the technological achievements of mankind. 123 meters - height, weight - 9 thousand tons a year
N AUKA - N.I. Lobachevsky turned ideas about the nature of space 1869 - periodic law chemical elements. D.I. Mendeleev Frenchman Louis Pasteur developed vaccines against anthrax (1881) and rabies (1885)
4. AND ART AND LITERATURE Ludwig van Beethoven () Fryderyk Chopin () Giuseppe Verdi () G. Berlioz ()
F.G OYA ()
K ARL B RYULLOV ()
ALEXANDER IVANOV ()
P AVEL FEDOTOV ()
P.I. Tchaikovsky () M.P. Mussorgsky ()
X Wanderers I. Kramskoy () I. Repin () A. Surikov () V. Vasnetsov () I. Levitan ()
Depending on the point of view on the object of study and the ongoing processes, the historical epochs may not be in the same order as the ordinary people are used to. Moreover, even the zero reference point can be placed in a very unusual place.Countdown start
What is "History"? History is what is recorded. If any event is not recorded, but is transmitted orally, then this is a tradition. Accordingly, it would be reasonable to assume that historical epochs concern only that period of the existence of human civilization, when writing was already invented. This is one of the important factors that separate historical eras from geological ones.
Following these arguments, the beginning of the countdown of historical eras will start from the moment of the invention of writing. But at the same time, the tradition of writing should not be interrupted.
In particular, there are samples of writing that date back to the age of 8 and 7.5 thousand years. But they did not continue, but were just local manifestations of the power of the human intellect. And these letters have not yet been deciphered.
The first records deciphered to date appeared in Egypt, approximately 5.5 thousand years ago. These are clay tablets that were in burial places. The names of the dead were written on them.
This writing has not been interrupted in time.
From this moment, the order of counting historical epochs begins.
Historical eras in chronological order
In each isolated region of the Earth, writing appeared in its own historical period. We will analyze the closest culture to us - European. And its origins, through the Cretan civilization, go back to Ancient Egypt.Please note that considering Ancient Egypt as the ancestral home of European culture, we separate ourselves from geographical landmarks. According to the "Theory of Civilizations" prof. A. D. Toynbee, these structures have the ability to develop, give life to other civilizations, in some cases fade away or be reborn into other cultures.
This means that the beginning of the chronology of historical eras will be the middle of the Eneolithic.
1. Ancient world, with a total duration of approximately 3,000 years, including:
· The Copper Age ended approximately 3700 years ago.
The Bronze Age. Ended 3100 years ago.
The Iron Age. Lasted until 340 BC.
· Antiquity. With the fall of Rome in 476, the era of the Ancient World ended.
2. Middle Ages. It continued until approximately 1500 (duration ≈1000 years). The beginning of the end of the Middle Ages was marked by:
· Massive migration of the educated part of the population from Byzantium to Europe.
The fall of Tsargrad in 1453.
· Emergence of the Renaissance. Perhaps it was this factor that was the foundation on which the modern capitalist civilization was formed, with its vices.
3. New time. This era lasted for about 400 years, and ended at the end of 1917 with the October Socialist Revolution. During this time, the cultural and moral state of society has undergone incredible metamorphoses.
If at the beginning of the New Age, God, who created man, was at the center of the worldview of an ordinary person, the whole world, and in general, was the measure of all things. That passing the era
· Renaissance, the works of Thomas Aquinas, theology began to be perceived as an ordinary scientific discipline, not tied to God. Then, the champion of Rationalism, Descartes, proclaimed the postulate: "I think, therefore I am." And in the final, G. Cherbury concluded that Christianity is a common philosophical doctrine. This was the beginning of Deism. Then followed
A drop of oil in the fire of reformatting consciousness was added by Voltaire, who argued that it was not God who created man, but man invented God. This marked the beginning of a schizoid split in the minds of an entire civilization. After all, on Sundays everyone went to church, and there they confessed that they were sinful and unworthy. But the rest of the days, they were equal to God.
And although now people began to be considered the measure of all things, people began to feel the lack of a spiritual and mystical component in their lives. And appeared on the threshold
The era of Romanticism. The mind was pushed to the sidelines, and feelings and emotions began to dominate, which replaced spirituality. Hence the irresistibility, the desire for risk. Duels were almost legalized. The image of a "noble savage" was formed.
Feerbach ended this period with the postulate: "Feelings are nothing, the main thing is to eat tasty and satisfying." And then it was the turn of the emancipation of women. Meanwhile, ontologically they are the keepers of traditional values.
4. The latest time. This period continues to this day, almost a hundred years.
Curious patterns
According to the calculations of prominent scientists, during each of the above epochs, ≈ 10 billion people managed to live on the planet. But the phenomenon of compression of historical time, with each epoch, reduced its duration by 2.5-3 times.
There are suggestions that for the transition of mankind to new formation, a certain baggage of knowledge and technological innovations should accumulate, which in turn lead to a qualitative leap.
Prof. S. Kapitsa, derived the population growth formula for the entire planet: N(t)=200 billion /(2025-t). Where N is the population at a given time, and t is a given time. Two constants: 2025 and 200 billion people, were obtained by several scientists independently of each other.
This formula allows you to build such a graph of population growth on Earth:
And it coincides with the data on the population, which historians provide with varying accuracy.
According to this concept, S. Kapitsa argued that approximately in 2025, a certain phase transition in the development of human civilization, which will be accompanied by global changes in all spheres of life.
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But as a result, the Russian revolutionaries only hid, learned the art of conspiracy and began preparing for the coming upheavals. The revolutionary movement has long become an international phenomenon: in the late 1860s, the International organization arose, which coordinated the activities of labor movements in different countries. Hopes that internal Russian measures would be able to put out the world fire forever were naive. As for patriotic ideas, during the reign of Alexander III the fine line between healthy national feeling and morbid nationalism was often broken; Jewish pogroms broke out more than once in the south.
Important events also took place outside the European continent; one of the main ones is the American Civil War (1861–1865) between North and South. The southerners were in favor of maintaining the principles of slavery, the northerners were against it; the meaning of the Civil War was the struggle for the path that America will take in the 20th century, the path of individual rights and civil liberties or the path of slavery and racism ...
Such was the historical background of the literary achievements, the study of which we have to study.
What are the main events of the world and national history the first half of the 19th century predetermined the fate of Russian writers of the golden age? Name the main names, events, dates.
Culture and economy
Culture and economics seem to be opposite poles. As far as the first is "impractical", sublime, so the last is "mundane" and aimed at obtaining benefits. And yet they depend on each other and influence each other to the extent that economic development affects the destinies, psychology and views of people.
Back in the 16th century, a new type of society based on private property and free enterprise began to take hold in Europe. capitalism. By the end of the 18th century, capitalism led to a rapid growth in urban production and shook the foundations of feudalism. He destroyed the traditional forms of political and everyday life, accustomed a person to the idea that his fate depends not on his origin, not on the habits of previous generations, but above all on his own will, energy, individual qualities.
The only dependence that capitalism recognized was dependence on money. However, the social nature of wealth has also changed. Before wealth reinforced power, based on nobility and origin, surrounded her with an aura of luxury and omnipotence. Now wealth itself has become an instrument of power; money invaded politics, began gradually, imperceptibly to rule the world. And literature, which until now has been a haven of inspiration, the free leisure of wealthy people - nobles, aristocrats - has turned, in Pushkin's words, into "a significant branch of industry." Literary studies became an independent profession; writers felt dependent not only and not so much on the benevolence of a high patron, philanthropist, but on the reader's demand for their books.
Technical discoveries, without which it is impossible competition- the main mechanism of a market economy - followed one after another; the word "for the first time" became the key word in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1783, for the first time, the Montgolfier brothers flew in a balloon, at the beginning of the 19th century the first wheeled steamer was built, in 1825 the first railway was laid, in 1831 Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction ... . In 1803-1806, the first Russian "circumnavigation" was carried out under the leadership of Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern; in 1814-1821, Russian explorers and sailors first went to the shores of Antarctica...
In the second half of the 19th century, this process assumed an essentially irreversible character. Technological breakthroughs led to the rise of the economy, the rise of the economy led to technological breakthroughs. In 1863, the world's first subway line (London) was launched, five years later the subway was built in New York, then in Budapest, Vienna, Paris. In 1876, Scottish-American Alexander Bell received a patent for a practically usable telephone set; some ten or fifteen years will pass, and telephone lines will connect cities and countries. In 1897, the Russian physicist Alexander Popov, who improved the radio receiver, began work on the creation of a wireless telegraph. This means that the information space of the Earth will narrow, the distances will shrink: after all, from now on, to transmit urgent information, it will take minutes, not days, weeks or months.
Almost simultaneously with Bell and Popov, the American Thomas Edison improved the telegraph (and then the telephone), invented the first phonograph (1879), that is, a device for recording and reproducing sound. And in last years XIX century, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel created the internal combustion engine, and the German designer Count Zeppelin airship- an aeronautical instrument, a prototype of a modern aircraft. The world has come close to the automobile era and to the development of airspace.
The symbol of the technological achievements of mankind and at the same time an indication of the path of technological progress that the newest civilization has finally chosen for itself will be the grandiose Eiffel Tower, 123 meters high and weighing 9 thousand tons, built according to the project of A. G. Eiffel in Paris for the World Exhibition of 1889 .
Science did not stand still. Scientists made one after another grandiose discoveries in its different areas. In 1829–1830, the Kazan mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky published the results of his many years of work, which overturned ideas about the nature of space, which were considered unshakable for more than 2000 years, since the time of Euclid. In 1869, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev comprehended one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law of chemical elements. Frenchman Louis Pasteur, founder of modern microbiology, developed vaccines against anthrax (1881), rabies (1885). Pasteur vaccinations made it possible to defeat diseases that were previously considered incurable ...
Of course, these scientific and technological processes interacted with the processes taking place in art only indirectly. But there was one kind of art, to the creation of which artistic culture, technology, science, and economics went hand in hand. In 1895, the French inventor Louis Jean Lumiere, with the participation of his brother Auguste, created an apparatus for capturing and projecting "moving photographs". It was the first movie camera suitable for practical use. In the 20th century, cinema will become a new art form and at the same time a powerful industry, combining the technological and creative discoveries of the 19th century.
These discoveries influenced both production and the very course of human life. If the man of the feudal era struggled to preserve the old ways that had been established over the centuries, then the man of the era of capitalism was forced to constantly change himself, changing everything around him. Even if he did not want it, even if he rebelled against the unstoppable renewal, like the English Luddites late XVIII – early XIX century, wrathfully smashing cars that took people's jobs. Thus, the foundations of a centuries-old cultural tradition were gradually destroyed; her even, calm movement was blasted from within; the development of literature also accelerated.
How did the development of science, economics, technology affect culture?
Art and literature
But, of course, the fate of Russian literature in the 19th century was most closely connected with processes that took place not in economics and politics, but in other forms of art. Without the musical creations of the German composer L. van Beethoven (1770–1827) with his heroic symphonism, without the refined lyrical etudes, nocturnes of the great Pole F. Chopin (1810–1849), without the operatic achievements of the brilliant Italian G. Verdi (1813–1901) and Because of the symphonic discoveries of the Frenchman G. Berlioz (1803–1869), European, including Russian, literature would never have made the qualitative breakthrough that it “decided” on at the beginning of the 19th century.
After all, artistic ideas generated by a major historical epoch never belong exclusively to any one type of art. They literally float in the air and are perceived in one way or another by every art. The internally torn and externally harmonious sound of Beethoven's tragic music, in which echoes of the revolutionary upheavals of that time were heard, echoed in the lyrics of F. Schiller (1759-1805), whose poem "Ode to Joy" formed the basis of Beethoven's 9th symphony. Chopin's attention to small forms, to unfinished fragments, to the nocturnal, mysterious atmosphere was transferred to the best lyricists of the first half of the century ... And the strange drawings, engravings and paintings of the Spanish artist F. Goya (1746–1828), full of inner horror before life, prepared the artistic ground for fantastic images of the best prose writers, including Gogol.
In the second half of the 19th century, completely different artistic ideas will triumph in European art: the world of aerial fantasy, the tragic experiences of an individual personality will be opposed by lifelike, realistic painting, epic music imbued with the spirit of the people. The time has come to descend from the sky-high heights to the sinful historical land. The most popular Russian artists of the 1830s were K. Bryullov (1799–1852), the author of the monumental and tragic canvas The Last Day of Pompeii (1830–1833), and A. Ivanov (1806–1858), who devoted his entire creative life to creating grandiose painting "The Appearance of Christ to the people" (1837-1857). And in the 1840s, the great everyday writer P. Fedotov (1815–1852) loudly declared himself, who became famous precisely for his attention to detail, to carefully written images from the life of insignificant people (“Fresh Cavalier”, 1846, “Major’s Matchmaking” , 1848). And the sweet epic P. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) and one of the creators of the monumental tradition of Russian opera M. Mussorgsky (1839-1881) reigned in the musical world, who tried to breathe truly popular power into opera art. The writers of that time also felt a taste for depicting everyday life and social relationships.
Emphasized indifference to lofty topics, the desire for realistic, almost photographic accuracy, distinguished the movement itinerant artists. Their partnership was formed in 1870. The members of the society were the author of the famous "Unknown" I. Kramskoy (1837-1887), as well as I. Repin (1844-1930) - the creator of "Barge Haulers on the Volga" and the ceremonial portrait of Alexander III, V. Surikov (1848-1916), who wrote "Boyar Morozova" and many other monumental canvases from Russian history. The bright painter V. Vasnetsov (1848-1926) was also associated with the movement of the Wanderers, who not only willingly worked with genre subjects, copied reality (the painting “From Apartment to Apartment”), but also created fantastic images of Russian folklore and even painted cathedrals. A much younger artist, the sad landscape painter I. Levitan (1860–1900), also considered himself a Wanderer, under whose brush the features of mournful biblical grandeur appeared in Central Russian nature.
Remember this when we study the works created by Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century. Writers, like artists and musicians, will pay tribute to the same artistic ideas. They will begin to look more closely at the surrounding life, they will begin to describe it in detail and almost scrupulously.
But art did not stand still. It moved on, opened up new horizons. At the beginning of the 19th century, musicians and painters were inspired by the realm of fantasy, the inner world of the artist himself was the main motive of European art. Then it was time to get to know the surrounding reality, to “ground” art. And by the end of the century, the next step was taken towards the unknown, the new, the unknown. In the 1860s, a new direction was born in French painting, and in the 1870s and 1880s, a new direction flourished. impressionism(from the word impression - impression). E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, P. Cezanne returned to pictorial art the freshness of the perception of life, they depicted instant, as if random situations, the play of light and shadow. The main thing in their paintings is not reality itself, but the artist's impression of it. To do this, the Impressionists left the workshops and moved the easels to open air where colors change every second, where the air trembles and changes the outlines of objects. Impressionism was not limited to the sphere of painting. He influenced the work of sculptors (the brilliant Frenchman O. Rodin), composers (the Frenchmen C. Debussy, M. Ravel). Of course, his creative impulses also echoed in poetry. You will feel it when we talk about the Russian lyrics of the late XIX century.
And at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, artists began to search for a new direction. At its source was the powerful, slightly scary music of the composer and thinker R. Wagner (1813–1883), prone to hysterical mystery. Gradually, a trend was taking shape that would determine the fate of artists and musicians of the next generation. This current is called symbolism. You will talk about him in the next class; at the same time you will find out what scientific ideas and doubts influenced the worldview of people at the end of the century and pushed art to search for new artistic ideas. In the meantime, you need to learn the fundamental thing: the new in art is born within the limits of the old, lives and develops in parallel with it. Yes, at the end school year we will read realistic, life-like stories by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, written in the 1880s and 1890s. But it was in 1890 that the outstanding Russian artist M. Vrubel (1856–1910) painted his main painting, The Demon, whose tense and almost painful symbolism is associated with the next era in the development of Russian art...
Listen to a fragment from Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th Symphony, then a fragment from Modest Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov. Compare the tonality, the general pathos of these musical works. Then compare two paintings - a portrait of A.S. Pushkin by the artist of the 1820-1830s Orest Kiprensky and "The Fresh Cavalier" by Pavel Fedotov. What is the fundamental difference in the attitude of these artists to life? In what direction did Russian art develop from the first to the second half of the 19th century?
Questions and tasks
1. What political event marked the beginning of the historical era that shaped the views of Russian writers of the 19th century?
2. What ideas inspired the people of that era?
3. What were the main events of Russian history at the end of the 18th-19th centuries?
4. How did the economy of that time influence the culture?
Arkhangelsky A.N. Alexander I. M., 2006 (ZhZL).
The book outlines the main facts of the life of the Russian Tsar; his political intentions and real deeds.
Decembrists: Selected Works: In 2 volumes / The publication was prepared by A. S. Nemzer, O. A. Proskurin. M., 1987.
Of all the anthologies of the literary heritage of the Decembrists, addressed to the general reader, this one is the best. Contains program documents of early and late Decembrist societies, works by P. A. Katenin, F. N. Glinka, K. F. Ryleev, A. A. Bestuzhev, A. O. Kornilovich, V. F. Raevsky, N. A. and M. A. Bestuzhevykh, I. I. Pushchin, V. K. Kuchelbeker, A. I. Odoevsky, G. S. Batenkov, I. D. Yakushkin. Brief but profound comments.
Ludwig E. Napoleon: Biography. M., 1998.
A master of psychological analysis, Emil Ludwig became famous for his biographies of great people. Marina Tsvetaeva considered his book about Napoleon to be the best of all dedicated to this historical figure.
Tarle E.V. Napoleon: Napoleon's Invasion of Russia // Tarle E. V. Collected Works. M., 1959. Vol. 7 (or any reprint).
The books of one of the most famous Soviet historians are written easily and extremely exciting. The essay on the life and work of Napoleon is not a popular biography, but a scientific and journalistic work, which, nevertheless, has become a favorite reading for several generations of Russians.
Tarle E.V. 1812. M., 1959 (or any reissue). A short popular essay on the great events of Russian history.
Troitsky N. A. 1812: The great year of Russia. M., 1988. Detailed, detailed presentation of the history Patriotic War 1812.
Eidelman N. Ya.“The moment of glory is coming…”: Year 1789. L., 1989.
This book will help you navigate the main events of the French Revolution and learn about how it was perceived in Russia; it is specifically addressed to students.
Eidelman N. Ya. Edge of Ages. M., 2004.
The history of the palace coup, which resulted in the death of Paul I and his son, the future Alexander I, came to power; It tells in detail and vividly about the problems that Russia faced at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.
Eidelman N. Ya. Your 19th century M., 1980. Popular essays on the fate of people Pushkin era addressed to high school students.
Encyclopedia for children: Art. T. 7. Music. Theatre. Cinema. M., 2000.
A short review of the history of art, written especially for schoolchildren.
Sentimentalism. Origins of Russian prose
The crisis of the ideals of the Enlightenment
You already have some ideas about the Enlightenment, about classicism and sentimentalism as artistic methods, about classicist ideas and sentimental attitudes. Now we will try to trace these principles, ideas and sensations in development, in movement. The difference will be about the same as between a static photo and a dynamic film. Changes in European literature, as well as in culture as a whole, accumulated gradually, little by little, imperceptibly to the eyes, just as the face of a person imperceptibly changes throughout life.
Since the 17th century, and even then closer to its middle, different groups of writers have arisen who hold dissimilar views on art, on its tasks and forms of expression. Gradually emerges literary process, during which the usual forms of creativity change, there is a struggle of directions, a search for new artistic ideas ... The life of culture is becoming more diverse, more and more complex.
In Western European literature, these changes begin earlier than in Russia, just as much as earlier capitalism is established in Europe. Russia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries is a feudal country in which bourgeois relations are only in their infancy. Russian merchants, manufacturers, breeders do not yet play an independent political and cultural role - they are only accumulating strength for the next breakthrough. And Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century, which responsively accepted many trends in European culture, remained much more traditional, much more balanced, much more conservative (in good sense words) than the romantic literature of European countries. She combined all the power of tradition with the freedom of novelty - this is what predetermined her originality and her greatness.
What in Western European literature immediately preceded the rise of Russian culture? What example turned out to be "contagious" for Russian writers who prepared the golden age?
The main event in the intellectual life of Europe in the 18th century was, as you now know, the French Encyclopedia with its pathos of transforming life on reasonable grounds. But while there was a long-term work on it, a lot has changed. The ideas of the encyclopedists "descended" from the sky-high intellectual heights into the bourgeois masses, became commonplace formulas, commonplaces. In the meantime, in the quiet of the philosophical and writer's offices, intense mental work was going on. Just as the thinkers of the generation of Diderot and Voltaire became disillusioned with the old picture of the world, so the European intellectuals of the new generation gradually became disillusioned with the ideas of the encyclopedists themselves. Hope was lost both in the omnipotence of the human mind, which is given to every person from birth, and in the power of experience that a person accumulates throughout life. Young thinkers believed less and less in the possibility of "remaking" the modern world on a rational basis. Increasingly, they recalled the terrible earthquake of 1755 in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, during which the beautiful city was three-quarters destroyed, and 60,000 of its inhabitants died. How then can one talk about a harmonious, reasonable world order? What to hope for, what to plan, if at any moment life itself can end? The ideals that inspired the people of the Enlightenment did not seem to stand the test of history.
As if anticipating this turn in the minds of contemporaries and far ahead of their time, some European writers of the Enlightenment, already from the 1730s, increasingly bitterly mocked the omnipotence of reason. While French philosophers were only pondering the ideas that would form the basis of the Encyclopedia, the English prose writer Jonathan Swift was already writing his immortal book Gulliver's Travels. And here, among other things, he talked about Gulliver's journey to the island of intelligent horses, who retained wise justice, calm kindness, connection with nature - everything that humanity has long lost ... So, the mind is given to man only as an opportunity, this opportunity can be used, or you can miss out.
Another English prose writer Henry Fielding in the novel "The Story of Tom Jones, the Foundling" (1749) told the story of two brothers. Tom always followed the "call of the heart", the natural predisposition of a person to goodness, and therefore, in the end, he became a person. Blifil took the best knowledge from teachers, but did not educate his heart - and therefore the natural, natural rationality degenerated in him into petty prudence.
The conclusion was implicitly brewing: it is necessary to educate, enlighten not only the mind, but also the feelings, otherwise the fragile European civilization is in danger of catastrophe.
When did the crisis of the Enlightenment begin? What does it express?
