Questions of school management in the history of Russian pedagogy. The development of Russian pedagogy and education in the XIX - early XX centuries. School and school policy

The science of education was formed when such sciences as geometry, astronomy, and many others already existed. The time has come when education began to play a very prominent role in people's lives. It turned out that society progresses faster or slower, depending on how the upbringing of the younger generations is put in it. There was a need to generalize the experience of education, to create special educational institutions.

Already in the most developed states of the Ancient World - China, India, Egypt, Greece - serious attempts were made to generalize the theoretical principles of education. All knowledge about nature, man, society was then accumulated in philosophy; in it the first attempts at generalization were made.

Ancient Greek philosophy became the cradle of European education systems. Its most prominent representative, Democritus (460-370 BC), created generalizing works in all areas of contemporary knowledge, not disregarding education. His winged aphorisms, which have survived the centuries, are full of deep meaning: “Nature and education are similar. Namely, upbringing rebuilds a person and, transforming, creates nature”; " good people become more from exercise than from nature”; “Teaching produces beautiful things only on the basis of labor.” Theorists of pedagogy were the great ancient Greek thinkers Socrates (469-399 BC), his student Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC). In their works, the most important ideas and provisions related to the upbringing of a person and the formation of his personality were deeply developed. Having proved their objectivity and scientific consistency over the centuries, these provisions act as the axiomatic principles of pedagogical science. A peculiar result of the development of Greek-Roman pedagogical thought was the work "The Education of an Orator" by the ancient Roman philosopher Marcus Quintilian (35–96). This work was for a long time the main book on pedagogy - along with the writings of Cicero, it was studied in all rhetorical schools.

The development of pedagogy in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

During the Middle Ages, the Church monopolized the spiritual life of society, directing education in a religious direction. Squeezed in the grip of theology and scholasticism, education has largely lost the progressive orientation of ancient times. From century to century, the unshakable principles of dogmatic teaching, which existed in Europe for almost twelve centuries, were honed and consolidated. And although among the leaders of the Church there were educated people, for example, the philosophers Tertullian (160-222), Augustine (354-430), who created extensive pedagogical treatises, pedagogical theory did not go far ahead.

The Renaissance gave the world a number of bright thinkers, humanist educators, who proclaimed the ancient saying as their slogan: "I am a man, and nothing human is alien to me." Among them are the Dutch Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536), the French Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) and Michel Montaigne (1533-1592).

Pedagogy has long been considered just a branch of philosophy. Only in the 17th century did it stand out as an independent science, while remaining associated with philosophy. Pedagogy is inseparable from philosophy, if only because both of these sciences deal with man, study his being and development.

The separation of pedagogy from philosophy and its formation into a scientific system are associated with the name of the great Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670), the creator of the scientific pedagogical system, the author of the work “Great Didactics”. Comenius demanded that education proceed from sensory perceptions, physical and moral education. The Czech teacher was convinced of the mighty power of education and believed that there were no children who could not be brought up. He developed all the main issues of organizing educational work, was the founder of classroom system learning. It is necessary to teach "on the basis of evidence through the external senses and reason." The works of Ya. A. Comenius had a huge impact on pedagogical thought and school practice in all countries of the world.

John Locke, J.-J. Russo, J. G. Pestalozzi

John Locke (1632–1704) was a major educator in the 17th century. At this time, a bourgeois revolution took place in England, which ended in a compromise between the bourgeoisie and the nobility. D. Locke reflected this compromise in his pedagogical theory, proposing a “gentleman” education system, which primarily pursued the goals of physical and moral education, formed “body discipline” and “spirit discipline”.

An irreconcilable struggle against dogmatism and scholasticism in pedagogy was waged by the French materialists and enlighteners of the 18th century - Denis Diderot (1713-1784), Claude Adrian Helvetius (1715-1771) and especially Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

J.-J. Rousseau was one of the French enlighteners who deeply believed in the power of education. He created the theory of natural education - education, which should be carried out in accordance with human nature, without interfering with his natural and free development.

J.-J. Rousseau developed a kind of age periodization and believed that when raising children, it is necessary to take into account their age features. He promoted the close connection of education with life and nature.

The democratic ideas of the French enlighteners largely determined the work of the great Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827). The purpose of education I.-G. Pestalozzi considered the self-development of natural forces, human abilities, his constant improvement, the formation of a moral character. The worldview of this teacher was influenced by the German idealistic philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries. He assigned a large role in moral education to the family, especially to the influence of the mother. He created the "theory of elementary education", according to which the main elements of knowledge are form, number and word. Therefore, elementary education was supposed to teach how to measure, count and master speech.

The pedagogical activity of J. G. Pestalozzi contributed to the development of public schools. The idea of ​​developing and educating education, put forward by him, had a positive impact on the development of advanced pedagogical theory and practice.

The role of K. D. Ushinsky in the history of the development of pedagogical thought in Russia

K. D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) - the great Russian pedagogue-democrat, the founder of Russian pedagogical science and the folk school in Russia. The pedagogical views of K. D. Ushinsky were based on the principles of nationality, the originality of Russian pedagogical science, and education in work.

K. D. Ushinsky understood education as a purposeful process of the comprehensive formation of personality. He considered it as a public, social phenomenon, and also pointed out the need for teachers to carefully study the laws of human nature. In order to achieve a full-fledged upbringing and development of the personality, K. D. Ushinsky developed a number of important principles.

In his opinion, the first place in the formation of a person should be occupied by the native language, which must be known perfectly as the history of one's homeland. An equally important principle of Ushinsky's pedagogical system is the principle of upbringing at work. He considered industriousness to be the basis of human happiness and demanded that teaching, like any work, should not be a game and fun, but a serious occupation.

KD Ushinsky did a lot in the field of didactics in developing the content of education, principles, methods and forms of education. He put forward the principle of educative education and considered the study of any subject as a single process of mental and moral development.

K. D. Ushinsky attached great importance to conscientiousness, systematicity and strength of training. He paid special attention to the correct organization of the lesson, the work of the teacher and students. He considered it necessary to put children in an active position, including them in various forms of pedagogically expedient activity.

K. D. Ushinsky highly appreciated the role of the teacher in the process of education, assuring that the educational effect depends on the pedagogical skill of the mentor. In this regard, he demanded that every teacher treat his profession with love.

The contribution of A. S. Makarenko and V. A. Sukhomlinsky to the development of Russian pedagogy

The works of A. S. Makarenko and V. A. Sukhomlinsky brought fame to the pedagogy of the socialist period.

A. S. Makarenko, an outstanding Soviet teacher and writer (1888–1936), put forward the basic principles for the creation and pedagogical leadership of a children's team, and developed a methodology for labor education. He studied the problems of the formation of conscious discipline and the upbringing of children in the family. One of the main principles of education Makarenko considered humanism. He emphasized that in relation to children, "a sense of proportion in love and severity, in affection and severity" is necessary. A. S. Makarenko closely combines humanism with optimism, the ability to see positive forces in each pupil, to “project” the development of the best in a person.

Makarenko believed that it was impossible to consider a person in isolation from society, so he devoted the main place in his pedagogical system to the problem of education in a team.

The outstanding Soviet teacher outlined his views in the books "Pedagogical Poem", "Flags on the Towers", "Book for Parents". In the Pedagogical Poem, Makarenko was concerned with the question of how to portray a person in a team, a person’s struggle with himself, the team’s struggle for its value. In the book "Flags on the Towers" Makarenko sought to portray a happy children's team in a happy society.

A. S. Makarenko was one of those first Soviet teachers who developed the issues of family education.

Another Soviet teacher, V. A. Sukhomlinsky (1918–1970), studied the moral problems of youth. He has written more than 30 books and 300 articles. Especially widely known are his books “Guidance of educational work at school”, “Believe in a person”, “Pavlysh secondary school” (of which he was the director), “I give my heart to children”. The books of V. A. Sukhomlinsky are distinguished by great love for children, depth and relevance. Many of his didactic tips, apt observations retain their significance when comprehending modern ways development of pedagogical thought.

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Management of educational systems

Topic: "Organization of school management in the history of pedagogy."

(2 hours).

1. Statement by M.V. Lomonosov of questions of the organization of the school.
2. Administrative and pedagogical activity of N.I. Pirogov.
3. K.D.Ushinsky - reformer educational institutions.
4. LN Tolstoy is the creator of the folk school of free development.
5. Inspector and director of public schools IN Ulyanov.
6. Modern ideas of teachers about management.

Literature:

1. Akhtamzyan N.A. The system of state-public management of education in Germany //Pedagogy. - 2004. - No. 6. - pp. 85-93.
2. Goncharov N.K. The pedagogical system of K.D. Ushinsky. - M., 1974.

3. Ivansky A.I. Ilya Nikolaevich Ulyanov. According to the memoirs of contemporaries and documents. - M., 1963.

4. History of Pedagogy: Textbook for ped students. in-tov / I.L. Konstantinov, E.N. Medynsky, M.F. Shabaeva. - M., 1982.

5. Krasnovsky A.A. Pedagogical ideas of N.I. Pirogov. - M., 1949.

6. Morozova O.P. Pedagogical workshop. – M.: Academy, 2000.

7. Perevalova L.A. Pedagogical views of M.V. Lomonosov. - M., 1964.

8. Smirnov A.V. On one of the possible ways of developing the school of the XXI century // Science and life. - 1999. - No. 2.

9. Tolstoy L.I. Pedagogical essays / Comp. N.V. Veikshan. - M, 1984.

1. Management of educational systems / Ed. V.S. Kukushina. - M., 2003. - p. 21-77.

Tasks:

1. Read the article by Akhtamzyan N.A. and hold comparative analysis control systems in Germany and Russia. Prepare a report on this issue.
2. Solve the pedagogical tasks proposed in the workshop by O.P. Morozova: No. 1, 2, 3, 8 (p. 298-300).
3. Prepare an abstract report on the article by Smirnov A.V.

Topic: " school documentation and equipment".

1. Functions of intra-school information, reporting and educational and pedagogical information.

2. Documentation of the teacher.

3. Documentation of school leaders.

4. Financial receipts, school budget.

5. Acquisition, storage and use of visual aids and TCO, equipment of classrooms.

Literature:

1. Pedagogy / Under. ed. P.I. piddly. - M., 1998.

2. Sergeeva V.P. Management of educational systems. - M., 2000. - p.109-114.

3. Frish G.L. Documentation (a short practical guide to writing management references). - M., 1999.

Topic: "Pedagogical council of the school."

1. 
   The content of the work of the Pedagogical Council.
2. Methodology for conducting the Pedagogical Council.
3. Characteristics of the stages of preparation and conduct of teachers' councils.
4. Non-traditional forms of pedagogical councils.

Literature:

1. 
   Pedagogy / Ed. P.I. Pidkasistogo. - M., 1998. - ed. 3. - p. 578-582.
2. Berezhnova L., Lapteva L. Pedagogical council: school practice // Public education. - 2003. - No. 5.
3. Bochkova L. Teachers' Council: preparation, conduct, results //Director of the school. - 1998. - No. 7.
4. Selevko G.K. Non-traditional forms of pedagogical councils // Public education. - 1998. - No. 4.
5. Selevko G.K. Technologies of pedagogical councils // School technologies. - 1998. - No. 3.

Tasks.

1. 
   To study (analyze and make extracts) the proposed literature on the topic of the lesson.
2. Compare the work of teachers' councils with the new forms of school-wide school management - the School Council and the Board of Trustees. Use the materials of the textbook "Pedagogy" / Ed. P.I. Pidkasistoy and articles: Bochkarev V.I. On the functions of the school council //Pedagogy. - 1992. - No. 1-2; Borshcheva N. Board of Trustees - a public form of management of an educational institution //People's education. - 2001. - No. 10.

Topic: "Diagnostics of the quality and result of the teacher's professional activity."

1. The main stereotypes of the teacher's activity. (Skok G.B.S. 50-51).

2. The activities of the teacher to enhance the activities of students. (Skok G.B.S. 53).

3. The activity of the teacher to create a positive emotional mood and regulation of behavior in the classroom. (Skok G.B.S. 56-58).

4. Evaluation of pedagogical activity:

Students' opinion about the quality of pedagogical activity;

The quality of the lesson;

Self-esteem;

Final result;

Methodological support;

Parents' opinion;

The opinion of former students, students.

5. Opinion of the administration. Characteristic analysis.

6. Applications. The results of the analysis of the pedagogical activity of the teacher. (Skok G.B.S. 98-99).

Literature:

1. Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy: Textbook for universities. - SPb., 2000.

2. Zvereva V.I. Certification // Diagnostics and examination of pedagogical activity of certified teachers. - M., 1998.

3. Makarova L.V. Teacher: activity model and certification / Under. ed. prof. V.L. Balanin. - M., 1992. - S. 148.

4. Evaluation and certification of educational personnel abroad. Allowance for employees of educational authorities and educational institutions /Under. ed. cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. Yu.S. Alferov and Corresponding Member. RAO, Dr. - psychologist. Sciences V.S. Lazazeva. - M., 1997.

5. Pidkasy P.I. The essential characteristic of cognitive activity //Vestnik vysshei shkoly. - 1985. - No. 9. - S. 35-39.

6. Simonov V.P. Diagnostics of personality and professional excellence teacher. - M., 1995.

7. Skok G.B. Certification of teachers: preparation and conduct: Tutorial/ Rev. ed. Yu.A. Kudryavtsev. - Novosibirsk: NGTU, 1993. - S. 63.

8. Skok G.B. How to predict your own pedagogical activity: Textbook. - M., 1998.

Topic: "Self-education of teachers."

1. Purpose, tasks and forms of self-education of teachers.

2. Methodical associations; their structure and content of activity.

3. School of excellence: mentoring, problem groups, workshops.

4. Organization of open and demonstration lessons.

5. Scientific and theoretical conferences and pedagogical readings.

6. Refresher courses. Tasks. Periodicity.

7. Self-education and methods of self-education.

8. Testing (a technique for identifying the degree of development of a teacher's organizational abilities).

Literature:

1. Gromkova M.T. If you are a teacher. M., 1998.

2. Kovalev A.G. Collective and socio-psychological problems of leadership. - M., 1978.

3. Kuzmina N.V. Essays on the psychology of teacher's work. - L., 1967.

4. Krutetsky V.A. Basics educational psychology. - M., 1972.

5. Petrovsky A.V. Ability and work. - M., 1966. "

6. Ruvinskiy L.I. Self-education of feelings of intellect, will. - M., 1983.

7. Stankin M.I. The professional abilities of the teacher. - Flint, 1998.

Topic: "Communication and conflicts in pedagogical activity in the school team."

1. Identification of the objective cause of the conflict.

2. Transition from an emotional level to a rational one.

3. Resolution of the conflict situation.

Direct path to recovery

Conflict.

Indirect ways to eliminate the consequences of the conflict.

4. Manager for conflict situations.

5. Avoiding conflict.

6. Testing.

Literature:

1. Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication. - M., 1993.

2. Borodkin F.M., Koryak N.M. Attention - conflict! - Novosibirsk, 1989.

3. Veresov N.N. The formula of confrontation, or how to eliminate conflict in a team. - M., 1998.

4. Kan-Kalik V.A. Teacher about pedagogical communication. - M., 1987.

5. Morozova O.P. Pedagogical workshop. – M.: Academy, 2000.

6. Stankin M.I. The professional abilities of the teacher. - Flint, 1998.

7. Tseng N.V., Pakhomov Yu.V. Psychotraining games and exercises. - M., 1988.

Tasks:

1. Solve the pedagogical problem presented in the workshop by O.P. Morozova - No. 6 (p. 300).
2. Approbation of psychotraining and exercises.

Questions for the colloquium

Based on the book by V.A. Sukhomlinsky “A Conversation with a Young School Principal”.

1. What are the main problems of the teacher's creative work?
2. The essence of managing the creative work of the team?
3. Main pedagogical phenomena schools. Their essence and interdependence.
4. Components of the teacher's pedagogical culture.
5. Ways to improve the overall culture of teachers and students.
6. What does it mean to be a humane teacher?
7. Who are difficult children?
8. Fundamentals of moral education of the younger generation. Rules of moral education.
9. Visiting and analysis of lessons by the principal.
10. The main directions of summarizing the academic year.

Basic literature for the course.

1. Vorobieva S.V. Fundamentals of management of educational systems. – M.: Academy, 2008.
2. Zaitseva I.A. and other management of educational systems. – M.: March, 2003.
3. Panferova N.N. Management in the education system. – Rostov/D: Phoenix, 2010
4. Sergeeva V.P. Management of educational systems. - M., 2000. - 136 p.
5. Management of educational systems / Ed. V.S. Kukushina. - M., 2003. - 464 p.
6. Shamova T.I., Davydenko T.M., Shibanova G.N. Management of educational systems. - M., 2002. - 384 p.

The development of pedagogical consciousness during this period is characterized by the formation of classical and reformist pedagogy.
Russian pedagogical thought in the first half of the 19th century. represented by such names as M.M. Speransky (1772-1839) and M.N. Karamzin (1776-1826), V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852), A.P. Kunitsyn (1783-1841), N.I. Lobachevsky (1792-1856), T.N. Granovsky (1813-1855) and others. Special pedagogical works appeared at this time, for example, the work of I.P. Pnina (1773-1805) “The experience of enlightenment with regard to Russia.

In the 30s of the XIX century, there was a process of global understanding of Russian social life and education, as a result of which several directions of philosophical and pedagogical thought were formed.

The first - western-oriented direction - can rightfully be associated with P.Ya. Chaadaev (1794-1856), who proposed the development of Russia, and, accordingly, Russian education, on the path of their radical replacement with Western European culture, including the replacement of Orthodoxy with Catholicism.

V.G. Belinsky (1811-1848) became the founder of the revolutionary-democratic trend in Russian social thought and in Russian pedagogy. Its most important requirements are individual freedom, equality, and so on. The main opponents of individual freedom, the progress of the country, in his opinion, were the monarchy and Orthodoxy, which should be eliminated.

A.I. Herzen (1812-1870) in his numerous publications and works of art actively addressed the issues of education.

A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837) can be recognized as the founder of the nationally oriented trend in Russian culture. He not only acted as a defender of the traditional way of life of Russian society, but his views on Russian education changed significantly over time in favor of traditional foundations.

The true founders of the theory of traditional Russian society and Russian education can be considered A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), and I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1856). Realizing the insufficiency and one-sidedness of the Western European path of development of humanitarian thought, the dead end of one-sided rational philosophy, they proposed a different way of comprehending the truth, a different system for building knowledge. They consisted in a return to Christian philosophy and its highest manifestation - the patristic heritage. Based on the works of the holy fathers, they proposed ideas for the development of traditional Russian education.

N.V. Gogol (1814-1852). I also understood the futility for Russia of blind borrowing of Western European culture, Western European upbringing and pedagogy. Therefore, he proposed to develop Russian education, based on its historical, traditional cultural foundations. At the same time, he proposed not to close himself off from Western European culture, but to take from it what was necessary for Russian society and its successful development.

First half of the 19th century gave the world many great spiritual figures, among them the Monk Seraphim of Sarov (1759-1831), one of the greatest saints of the Russian land. His teaching on the spiritual development of man is the most important source of true spiritual and moral education.

Speaking about the main directions of development of pedagogical thought in Russia, it should be said about the actual pedagogical figures and their works.

In the 1930s, one of the remarkable teachers of Russia, O.E. Gugel (1804-1841). His textbooks for primary education are widely known. P.S. worked with him. Guriev (1807-1884). At the same time, the first pedagogy textbooks appeared in Russia. Their author was A.G. Obodovsky (1796-1852).

In the second half of the XIX century. many well-known figures worked in Russian pedagogy. Among them: N.F. Bunakov (1837-1904), V.I. Vodovozov (1825-1886), A.Ya. Gerd (1841-1888), N.A. Korf (1834-1883), P.F. Lesgaft (1837-1909), D.D. Semenov (1834-1902), V.Ya. Stoyunin (1826-1888), P.G. Redkin (1808-1891), P.D. Yurkevich (1826-1874) and others.

The greatest contribution to the development of pedagogy in the second half of the 19th century, which rightfully became a Russian pedagogical classic, was made by N.I. Pirogov, N.A. Dobrolyubov,
N.G. Chernyshevsky, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, K.D. Ushinsky, S.A. Rachinsky, K.P. Pobedonostsev and others.

N.I. Pirogov (1810-1891). Having published his article "Questions of Life", he posed one of the most important problems of Russian education and upbringing - the problem of the correlation between universal and special education. The article was a huge success and immediately made famous name Pirogov throughout Russia, and put the problems of education at the center of public life.

After the publication of the article by N.I. Pirogov was actively involved in the pedagogical life of the country, becoming a trustee of the Odessa, and then the Kiev educational districts. At the same time, he published many works on education, in which he proposed his own system of education for Russia.

According to Pirogov, the Russian education system was to consist of a universal two-year elementary school, a real or classical pro-gymnasium (4 years of study), real (3-4 years of study) and classical (3 years of study) gymnasiums, universities and other higher educational institutions.

From the point of view of Pirogov, the foundation of education was to be a universal principle, its embodiment in the content of education was classical culture. Therefore, in development high school he gave priority to the classical, rather than the real content of education.

N.I. Pirogov did a lot to develop education in Russia, improve the training and professional skills of teachers, and humanize relations at school.

L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) entered Russian pedagogy both as a theoretician, who wrote a number of profound articles on upbringing and education, and as a practitioner, who devoted many years to the creation of a public school and prepared his wonderful educational books for it.

The most important idea of ​​Tolstoy is the natural and free formation of education, especially the public school. Proceeding from this theoretical attitude, Tolstoy insisted that the Russian folk school develop freely in the course of its natural historical development by the people themselves. Following this idea, he opens his own school in Yasnaya Polyana, develops a new content of education for it. He also proposed a new organization of the school, which actually became a full-time school, new teaching methods that contributed to the development of the creative abilities of children, the formation of their activity. The work of the school soon gained wide popularity, many teachers, even foreign ones, sought to get acquainted with its activities.

After the closing of the school in Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy continued his studies in pedagogy: he wrote articles in which he outlined the ideas of free education, textbooks for elementary school, which were not only perfect in didactic terms, but also carried a huge moral potential, he constantly met with teachers.

N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) played a major role in the establishment and development of revolutionary democratic ideology and pedagogical thought.

As a follower of the ideas of the Enlightenment, he argued that the progress of society is determined by the degree of development of the mind, and therefore education is the most important engine of human progress. Therefore, according to Chernyshevsky, the most important task of philosophy, science, literature, and art is the mental and moral development of the people. Hence the special responsibility of the intelligentsia, enlightened people to their people for their education and upbringing (in general, the works of Chernyshevsky played a big role in rooting in Russia such concepts as duty, service to the Motherland and people), responsibility for the education of those who are deprived of it - the common people , women. Chernyshevsky is credited with substantiating the anthropological principle as the leading scientific principle. social sciences including pedagogy.

N.D. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861) had a noticeable influence on the development of pedagogical thought in Russia. He wrote a number of deep pedagogical articles in which he outlined his understanding of the nature of the child and his upbringing.

The original idea of ​​Dobrolyubov's pedagogy is the idea of ​​the rational nature of the child, which he put forward in the article "On the Importance of Authority in Education". Proper upbringing, Dobrolyubov argued, should be built in accordance with the rational nature of the child, should be guided by the "development of the inner person." Based on this idea, Dobrolyubov managed to review many aspects of the existing education and determine ways to improve it. Thus, he came out as a resolute opponent of the authoritarian concepts of education, which demanded the suppression of the will of the child and submission to his "reasonable will of an adult", against the unreasonable punishment of children, especially physical. And apparently thanks to the passionate and decisive position of Dobrolyubov, already in the 60s. physical punishment in the Russian school was officially abolished. Who can calculate how many millions of children Dobrolyubov preserved the health of his uncompromising position ... Dobrolyubov made a certain contribution to improving the content schooling and children's reading.

The most prominent ideologists of the nationally oriented path of development of Russian education were: K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870); S.A. Rachinsky (1833-1902);
M.Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885); A.A. Tikhomirov (1852-1890); K.V. Leontiev (1831-1891); F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881); K.P. Pobedonostsev (1827-1907); S.I. Miropolsky (1842-1907); N.I. Ilminsky (1822-1891).

K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870). His name is rightfully on a par with the great teachers of the world, and for the education and pedagogy of Russia, his activities are of the same importance as the activities of Lomonosov - for science, Pushkin - for literature, Glinka - for music.

K.D. Ushinsky played a decisive role in the development of public education in Russia, primary and secondary schools, women's and vocational teacher education, pedagogy and teaching methods, developmental and educational psychology. His pedagogical heritage can be presented in the form of three parts: theoretical works, methodical works and educational books.

The first part - theoretical works - includes works from articles devoted to the analysis of education systems in different countries of the world, to the fundamental work "Man as an Object of Education, or the Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology".

The uniqueness of the pedagogical thinking of K.D. Ushinsky is that he analyzes education in all forms of theoretical pedagogical consciousness, based on theological, social (“the principle of nationality”) and anthropological principles.

The second part is the methodical works of K.D. Ushinsky. They set out the system of teaching and learning based on his educational books "Native Word" and "Children's World".

The third part is educational books by K.D. Ushinsky: "Native Word" (year one, two, three) and "Children's World" in two parts. Educational books "Native Word" were intended for the initial teaching of the Russian language to 7-10-year-old children; "Children's World" - for older children. It provided material for teaching the native language, native literature, natural science, geography, logic, and the history of Russia.

In building the system of Russian upbringing and education, Ushinsky assumed to proceed from the idea of ​​nationality, which underlies the education of any people.

Ushinsky developed the theory and methodology of teaching in elementary school and folk school. He advocated the organization of a public school, built on the basis of the people and led by the people.

At the end of K.D. Ushinsky came up with the idea of ​​organizing professional, handicraft training for children from the people.

Much attention to K.D. Ushinsky paid attention to the issues of building a secondary school. As an inspector of the Smolny Institute, he reorganizes the educational part of this educational institution, creating a modern secondary school. He also wrote a lot about the secondary school in Russia: gymnasiums, colleges, military gymnasiums, schools under the clergy; proposed an education system for the future heir to the Russian throne. Although these were different schools, in the works of Ushinsky they are united by the fact that he proposed to build their activities on the basis of nationality, science and Orthodoxy.

Analyzing the work of the university, K.D. Ushinsky wrote that of all the educational institutions in Russia, only its universities corresponded to the idea of ​​nationality. Therefore, he advocated the gradual improvement of their work, believing that universities should perform scientific, educational, educational and educational functions.

K.D. Ushinsky advocated the organization of higher education for women in Russia. On the basis of the Smolny Institute, he wanted to create high school, but the resignation did not allow him to implement this idea.

He developed a system of pedagogical education, which included pedagogical classes in women's gymnasiums and women's institutes such as Smolny, teachers' seminaries, and pedagogical faculties at universities. He also developed the foundations for the organization, content, forms and methods of work of these institutions.

Thus, in the works of K.D. Ushinsky proposed one system upbringing and education, starting with family education and ending with university education, a system based on the principles of nationality, Orthodoxy and the anthropological principle. This system takes into account the age characteristics of students and the specific characteristics of each class of students.

F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). Although it artistic creativity is the subject of countless literary studies, its pedagogical legacy has not yet been systematically read.

F.M. Dostoevsky as a teacher appears, firstly, as an educator of the Grand Duke Konstantin Romanov; secondly, as a brilliant artist, in whose work many aspects of the development, formation and upbringing of the child's soul are reflected; thirdly, as a theoretician of pedagogy, who substantiated in his journalistic works the ways and forms of the development of Russian upbringing and education.

The most important pedagogical problems posed by F.M. Dostoevsky: the correlation of the universal and the national in Russian education (he argued that Russia would enter world civilization in no other way than by the maximum development of its national culture, therefore it should also underlie Russian upbringing and education); the role of science in education - it should be given priority attention; the nature of education - it must be serious and real work; the expansion of education, the inclusion of broad sections of the people in education, the granting of the right to receive education, including higher education, to women; the problem of freedom and moral responsibility - their unity; legal consciousness and its formation in the Russian person; preparation of a national teacher, etc.

S.A. Rachinsky (1833-1902) - the great Russian teacher, who devoted most of his life to public education. Author of many works on the organization of education in public schools.

K.P. Pobedonostsev (1827-1907) - the great thinker of Russia, the significance of whose social and pedagogical ideas is only just beginning to be understood, the creator of the system of parochial education in Russia.

S.I. Miropolsky (1842-1907) - one of the prominent theorists and figures of the parochial school. His theoretical and methodical works, textbooks were of great importance for the development of the parochial school.

A.A. Tikhomirov (1852-1890) substantiated the leading role of the Orthodox Church in spiritual and moral education. He wrote: “The Church is precisely the environment in which a world outlook is brought up, indicating to a person the absolute dominance in the world of the supreme moral principle.”

For the second half of XIX in. the main activity of the greatest saints and thinkers of Russia is accounted for: Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov), Bishop Ignatius Brianchaninov, Bishop Theophan the Recluse, St. Ambrose of Optina, and others.

Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov) (1782-1867) - a great figure and educator of Russia, the author of many theological works and textbooks. He and his associates translated the Bible into Russian.

Bishop Theophan the Recluse (1815-1884) is one of the greatest thinkers in Russia. He wrote a number of religious and pedagogical works, which set out the fundamental ideas and principles of Orthodox pedagogy.

Bishop Ignatius (Bryanchaninov) (1807-1867) - formulated the most important principles of Orthodox understanding and education of a person.

The Monk Ambrose of Optina (1812-1891) is the greatest saint, to whom many great people of Russia turned for advice and guidance, including F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy and others. Practically embodied in his activities the principles of patristic pedagogy.

Late XIX - early XX century. in Russia - the time of the formation and development of reformist pedagogy, which, as in Western Europe, is characterized by the creation of new branches of psychological and pedagogical science, new directions of their development, along with the development of traditional pedagogy.

The most important directions in the development of pedagogical thought in Russia were:
philosophical direction. A number of philosophers address the issues of education at this time: V.S. Solovyov (1853-1990), V.V. Rozanov (1856-1919), N.A. Berdyaev (1874-1948), P.A. Florensky (1882-1937) and others.

In the field of general pedagogy, such figures as M.I. Demkov (1859-1939) - author of fundamental works on the history of education and general pedagogy; P.F. Kapterev (1849-1921) - a prominent historian and theorist of pedagogy; the activity of P.F. Lesgaft; widely known, especially among teachers primary schools, use the works of V.P. Vakhterov (1853-1924) and others.

An important direction of this period was the pedagogy of free education. The experience of S.T. Shatsky (1878-1934), who created several children's communes, in which children received not only education, but also upbringing; K.N. Wentzel (1857-1947), author of books on free education and creator of a school based on these ideas;
IN AND. Farmakovskogo.

Since the beginning of the XX century. Russia is developing a new pedagogical science- pedology. Its most prominent representatives were N.E. Rumyantsev, S.A. Levitin and others.

During this period, the formation of general, pedagogical, developmental and special psychology takes place. The most prominent role in its development was played by: G.I. Chelpanov (1862-1936) - one of the founders domestic psychology, founder of the Institute of Psychology; A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) - one of the founders of child and developmental psychology; A.P. Nechaev (1870-1948) - one of the founders of Russian experimental psychology; I.A. Sikorsky (1842-1919) - a prominent scientist in the field of child psychology; V.P. Kashchenko (1870-1943), known for his theoretical works and practical activities in the field of raising children with mental retardation.

At this time, representatives of the natural sciences also began to deal with issues of pedagogy. The most prominent representatives of this trend were V.M. Bekhterev (1857-1927), V.I. Vernadsky (1863-1945), D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) and others.

Of the figures of Orthodox pedagogy, the most famous is the name of John of Kronstadt (1829-1908). He taught for many years at the Kronstadt gymnasium. His pedagogical ideas: Christ-centeredness, living faith in God as the basis of spiritual and moral development and education of a person.

In general, the main merits of Russian pedagogy in the 19th - early 20th centuries. can be imagined like this. Its leaders not only mastered all forms of theoretical pedagogical consciousness, but also created works of world significance; formed the philosophy and ideology of Russian education; substantiated such principles as the principle of nationality and Orthodoxy in education, proved the need for the priority of education in education, the labor nature of the learning process, the personal-collective principle in education, etc.; developed different models and types of schools from primary to higher; laid the foundations for the modern content of education from primary (K.D. Ushinsky, L.N. Tolstoy, K.P. Pobedonostsev, S.A. Rachinsky and others) to higher education; wrote modern textbooks and teaching methods on them; developed successful forms and methods of teaching in all types of schools.

19th - early 20th centuries - the time of rapid development of Russian education. Already the beginning of the XIX century. characterized by major reforms in education. The most important role in reforming education during this period was played by M.M. Speransky. His name is associated with the reorganization of the entire education system, primarily higher and spiritual, the opening of fundamentally new educational institutions, including the lyceum in Tsarskoe Selo. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was established, which began to develop an education reform in Russia. In 1804, the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” was approved, which determined the content and organization of Russian education.

According to the charter, a unified education system was established in Russia (unfortunately, this legislative decision was canceled a year later). The country was divided into six educational districts according to the number of universities, all educational institutions subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education passed into their subordination. According to this charter, four types of schools were established in Russia: parochial schools, county schools, gymnasiums and universities.

After Patriotic War In 1812, conservatism began to increase in education, the growth in the number of educational institutions slowed down, and academic freedoms were limited. At the same time, attempts are being made to build education on truly Christian and popular principles. The development of this area of ​​educational policy is associated primarily with the activities of the Minister of Public Education A.S. Shishkov.

The development of Russian education in the second quarter of the 19th century was determined by the activities of Emperor Nicholas I. The Charter of 1828 quite severely isolated the different levels of education from each other, linking them to certain estates. The paradox of the reforms of this period lies in the fact that, on the one hand, there were restrictions on the activities of gymnasiums and universities, and on the other hand, educational institutions were being created aimed at training specialists for industry and Agriculture, various professional schools were opened: agricultural, technical, commercial, including higher ones, for example, the Institute of Technology, the Institute of Civil Engineers, etc. Much effort was made to organize public education, so there was an increase in the number of public schools, the most prominent role in the organization of which was played V.F. Odoevsky (1804-1869).

During this period, the most significant contribution to the development of the content and technologies of primary education was made by E.O. Gugel with his textbooks and V.F. Odoevsky - with his books, methodological developments.

The formation of the content of education in secondary school was extremely difficult. During the first half of the century, it changed many times. At the same time, its general trend can be defined as the formation of the neoclassical content of education, which, along with classical culture and languages, also included mathematics.

Mid-nineteenth century - the time of fundamental reforms in all spheres of life in Russia, including education. For several years after 1855, education was at the center of attention of society and the state. The result of their broad public and state discussion was the statutes of educational institutions adopted in the 60s, which determined the further development of the Russian school. In the same years, a powerful social and pedagogical movement took shape, which begins to play an ever-increasing role in the education of Russia.

Primary School. The 1960s were the time for the creation of fundamentally new system public education. The best known are the ministerial, zemstvo, and parochial schools. From the 70s. 19th century In order to train teachers for public schools, teachers' seminaries began to open.

Secondary school. In the 60s. in Russia, not only is the classical gymnasium being improved, but the real school is becoming a mass real school, although it does not receive the rights of a classical gymnasium, and secondary schools of various departments are being reformed: military, religious, etc.

60s became the time for the creation of a new system of women's education. Previously existing women's educational institutions, both secular and spiritual, are being completely reformed. The most striking example of this is the Smolny Institute. A new type of women's educational institution is being created - a women's gymnasium. The first women's gymnasium in Russia was opened in 1856 in St. Petersburg by V.I. Vyshnegradsky.

A noticeable rise in this period experienced national schools in all regions of Russia.

High school. As a result of the reforms of the 60s. spending on higher education increased, the number of universities and institutes increased. The universities were given autonomy. The content of education has undergone major changes. The quality of Russian university education corresponded to the world level.

From the middle of the XIX century. the formation of modern content and learning technologies began, which differed from the previously formed ones in the same way as literature XIX in. from 18th century literature. An outstanding role in this process was played by K.D. Ushinsky, N.I. Pirogov and other teachers of this period.

Thus, the reforms of education in Russia in the 60-70s were expressed in the rapid expansion of the network of different schools, from primary to higher, including the mass opening of public schools and secondary schools for women.

Period of government Alexander III was a period of slowdown in the development of Russian education, and at the same time, during this period, there were also noticeable phenomena in education, in particular, the creation of a full-fledged system of parochial schools.

Early 20th century - the time of rapid development of Russian education. In general, despite the diversity of schools, the main trend in education was the creation of a unified national education system. This was especially evident in the education reform project of Minister P.N. Ignatiev, who proposed three options for a single school: modern, classical and neoclassical. Ignatiev's activities as minister were quite fruitful: despite war time, there is a rapid increase in the number of different schools, a transition is being made to universal public education, the combination of the efforts of the state and society in matters of education is becoming more and more fruitful, a number of new curricula and teaching aids have been prepared.

The Provisional Government went even further in creating a unified school. In decrees, decisions, practical developments, it was supposed to create a single, taking into account various conditions and modifications, education system.

Let us briefly characterize the development of education during this period.

Primary School. Are being created different types primary schools - at the beginning of the XX century. there were 60 of them in Russia. Ministerial, zemstvo and parochial schools become the main ones. In 1912, higher public schools with a 3-year term of study were established in Russia, and teachers' institutes began to function to train teachers to work in them.

Early 20th century was especially fruitful for the development of the secondary school in Russia. During this period, a variety of schools functioned: state - gymnasiums, commercial schools, military schools ( cadet corps) etc.; public - real gymnasiums, women's gymnasiums, etc.; private - gymnasiums, especially women's, schools, colleges. And practically all these educational institutions gave a high level of education.

Developed fairly quickly higher education, especially non-state ones.

In general, the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries. were, on the one hand, a time of rapid development of Russian education, and on the other, a time of great shocks. The trouble in education is already evidenced by the fact that during this period more than 10 ministers of education were replaced, and often the new minister pursued a policy directly opposite to that pursued by his predecessor, which feverishly the entire education system.

Thus, the historical period of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. turned out to be a time of fairly rapid and fruitful development of Russian education, when the system of modern Russian education was basically formed.
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The concept of "management" is one of the most general, most universal concepts; it covers both social management, and the management of biological processes, and the management of various kinds of machines and mechanisms. In its most general form, management is the process of influencing a system in order to transfer it to a new state based on the use of objective laws inherent in this system.

The scientific foundations of management is a system of scientific knowledge that makes up the theoretical basis of management practice. Scientific management of the education system can be defined as a systematic, planned, conscious and purposeful interaction of management entities at various levels at all its levels (from ministries to schools, preschool and out-of-school institutions) in order to ensure the upbringing of the younger generations.

The scientific foundations of management consist of two parts: management theory and specific management sciences about the elements, functions and aspects of management.

The subject of management theory is the laws of management as an integral, complex social phenomenon.

Management can be considered in statics - as a structure and in dynamics - as a process.

Structure is a system of governing bodies. Each of them also has its own internal structure.

The management process is the functioning of management bodies and employees. It can be characterized from different points of view - content, organization, technology. The content of the management process is determined by the essence of management, its goals, principles, methods, functions, industry specifics, the level of this body in the overall system of management bodies.

The principles of management are the fundamental, fundamental rules that must be observed in the implementation of management, to ensure the achievement of specified goals.

In our opinion, the essence of management fully and comprehensively reflects the following principles of management:

a combination of collegiality and unity of command; combination in the management of state and public principles;

scientific character, inextricable relationship between theory and practice; planning;

consistency and complexity; efficiency, focus on results.

There is a close relationship between the principles and methods of management. Methods are ways, ways of implementing the principles of management, achieving the intended goals. Principles social management they do not choose at their own discretion - they are guided at any level of the managerial hierarchy, in any institution; they are mandatory, universal.

Management methods also exist objectively, they cannot be arbitrarily invented, invented, they follow from the principles of management, are conditioned by them. However, management methods, unlike principles, are more variable, they imply a certain freedom of choice - various paths can lead to the achievement of the intended goal.

Unfortunately, in a number of school publications recent years the emphasis is mainly on management methods, while management methods are either not considered at all, or are mentioned in passing, by the way. It seems that such an unjustified, one-sided approach disorients school leaders, employees of public education departments, gives rise to formalism, and contributes to the passion for administration.

Recently, it has become fashionable in pedagogical literature to talk about school management. Management covers the totality of relationships between people that develop in the process of development, adoption and implementation of management decisions. Management functions: planning, organization, control. The heads of public education bodies mainly manage subordinate institutions. At the school, the director also performs management functions, he plans the work of the school, organizes the educational issue, controls - all this is very important,

it is dangerous to underestimate the importance of management functions. But it is even more dangerous to exaggerate their role, to turn them into an end in themselves. Having formally accepted managerial functions, some school principals began to understand management as command, administrative activity, got carried away looking for the most complex forms of planning, tightened control, brought the information service to daily reports, reports, got carried away with issuing orders and instructions, - in fact, put themselves above the process, above the team .

The basics of school management are the creation of conditions for the normal course of the educational process. Yes, the principal of the school is obliged to ensure a high level of planning, organization, control. But not only that. First of all, the director is an accomplice pedagogical process, co-defendant, he is directly involved in the work of the school team for the education and upbringing of children, he constantly works with people: teachers, students, parents of children. You can manage processes, you can only manage people.

School leaders carried out management, but at the same time they participate in the implementation of managerial decisions, not only plan, but personally carry out these plans step by step: first of all, they create the proper psychological microclimate, a creative environment in the team, show not only the maximum requirements, but also genuine care about the mood of the teacher, his health, working conditions, they prepare events, work with the active guys, they are in the thick of things. Take the best school principals: A.S. Makarenko, V.N. Soroku-Rosinsky, ST. Shatsky, I.K. Novikova, V.A. Sukhomlinsky, in their activities, managerial functions occupy somewhere a small part of time and effort, moreover, they perform these functions not formally, not in isolation: they are the initiators of all events, the organizers of the main undertakings, the think tank of the school, they are constantly in search, in working with teachers, students and parents.

Imagine being "managed" easier. Indicate, dispose, make decisions, and then blame and punish ... It is much more difficult to manage! After all, there is no one to blame here, you yourself are in the thick of things, you yourself prepare and carry out things together with colleagues and children. But

The peculiarity of the director's work is that he cannot be on the sidelines and command from a "beautiful distance", administration leads to disintegration, a pedagogical fiasco.

The term "leadership" is closer to pedagogical reality, it specifies the application in pedagogy of general provisions related to management, taking into account the presence of other subjects, the need for unification, the merging of chains.

Management methods are ways of influencing one or another link of the management system on other, lower links or managed objects to achieve the intended management goals. The methods of leadership are ways of influencing people who realize and implement these goals.

The art of leadership, the ability to quickly take the most right decisions in conditions of uncertainty, lack of necessary information, they play a big role in the management of any object, but their share is especially large in the work of school leaders, departments of public education. In the process of teaching and educating students, various, often unforeseen situations arise daily and hourly, for which there are no ready-made recipes. It is practically not always possible to foresee, take into account all the factors, all the variables that affect the formation of the personality of schoolchildren. The management of the educational process in all its diversity cannot be squeezed into the framework of even the most skillfully invented plans, schedules, schemes, therefore, decisions often have to be made based not only on knowledge of the basic provisions of management theory, but also on practical work experience, on pedagogical tact.

Generalization, scientific analysis of the large and valuable experience accumulated by the heads of departments of public education, school principals, in this regard, acquire special significance and relevance, create prerequisites for further improvement of the style and methods of managing educational institutions.

The style of leadership depends both on objective factors (working conditions, the specifics of the tasks to be solved, the level of development of the team), and on subjective factors (personal characteristics of the leader, the degree of his preparedness, etc.).

The issue of management methods is closely related to the issue of work style, which is a set of the most typical methods for a given person to solve certain tasks and problems that arise in the process of leadership.

Experts in the field of management theory and social psychology distinguish three main styles of leadership - authoritarian, liberal and democratic. Of course, any of these styles is rarely found in its pure form, in practice there are many shades, transitional forms, but each leader "gravitates" to one or another style.

The authoritarian style is based on the widespread use of primarily administrative methods. An autocratic leader often makes decisions on his own, without taking into account the opinions of public organizations and subordinates. He is confident in his infallibility, places special hopes on the power of the order, strives to concentrate all power in his hands, considering it inappropriate to transfer part of his powers to employees of the administrative apparatus.

Often, the desire for autocratic methods of leadership leads to voluntarism and bureaucracy, to the adoption of unreasonable decisions, gives rise to a formal attitude towards their duties in subordinates, pushes them to work for the sake of a "tick", for the sake of "inflated" interest and imaginary well-being.

However, it would be wrong to consider the authoritarian style "absolute evil." There are situations when the use of autocratic methods as a temporary measure turns out to be quite justified - insufficient competence of subordinates, the absence of a single cohesive team, the presence of serious shortcomings in the work of the apparatus and subordinate institutions, i.e. deficiencies that require decisive and urgent action.

It should be noted that in the management of public education, elements of an authoritarian style that suppresses initiative and inhibits creative searches can have an extremely narrow scope.

The liberal style is characterized by the absence of a focused and effective leadership system. The leader of the liberal style is usually afraid of responsibility.

responsibility for the consequences of the decisions made, seeks to hide behind a screen of boundless collegiality, endless discussions, linkages, and agreements. He does not know how to show due integrity and exactingness, often refuses previously made decisions, does not have his own opinion. At best, a liberal-style leader is useless (issues are resolved without his active participation); at worst, he can cause serious damage to the cause and ruin the work of the apparatus.

To the greatest extent, the principles of management correspond to the democratic style of leadership, which is based on the right combination of collegiality and one-man management, involves the active participation of public organizations, all teachers in making managerial decisions at school.

The solution of management issues depends on the ability of school leaders and teachers to creatively use the latest achievements of science and best practices, on the ability to create the necessary conditions for the introduction of NOT in the school, from the relationships that have developed in the team, from the activity of teachers and students in educational and educational work.

In small schools, where there are only 5-6 teachers, the director directly manages all school employees.

The largest schools have a linear system. The director exercises leadership through his assistants.

Universities and large complexes have a functional management system: there is educational part, leading academic work, scientific part, leading scientific research teachers, the economic part, providing finance, furniture, manuals for the educational process.

The success of management with a systematic approach depends on:

planning the work of the school, correct formulation, ranking in order of importance of the goals of the educational process and training of specialists;

placement of personnel and establishing links between subsystems and "conducting" these links;

establishing a system of operational information! intra-school and performance feedback;

depth and comprehensiveness of pedagogical analysis and timely assistance in order to prevent or eliminate shortcomings as soon as possible;

creating conditions for the introduction of NOT in the practice of work of all employees and students;

The presence of the necessary psychological microclimate in the team;

Qualifications and experience of school leaders and systems for improving pedagogical skills and professional training of teachers.

The school meets all the requirements of a complex dynamic system. It is characterized by a well-known structural complexity, a long duration of many interacting transient processes occurring in it, the complexity and variety of tasks and goals. It clearly identifies three main interrelated aspects; functional, structural and informational.

Any system is a set of interacting components, the functional activity of which is aimed at achieving the set goals. The school as a system is a unity of various internally connected and substantially dependent components, each of which is usually included not in one, but in several adjacent systems.

The structure of the system can be represented in different ways. The school as a system is polystructural. It can be subdivided into subsystems, and the latter into elements. An element should be understood as a component or link of the educational process, the internal system of which is not taken into account. However, the control process takes into account its essential characteristics that affect other elements or the entire system. The school is divided, as we noted above, into two main interacting systems (subsystems) - managed and managing, which in turn are divided into smaller systems (or subsystems).

The management system in the school is a combination of administrative and economic units and various organs of the functional manifestation of the pedagogical and student teams. Each element included in the control system is at the same time its structure-forming part.

The controlled system represents the unity of its constituent systems (or subsystems) of educational, educational, methodological, extracurricular work, financial and economic services, etc., which in turn represent a set of elements, each of which can be considered as an independent system.

In managed and managing systems, there is a complex dependence of the part on the whole and the whole on its part. In the process of purposeful influence on the educational process, relations arise not only between the control and controlled systems, but also within each of them.

Each of the elements exists, functions and develops on the basis of the goals and objectives of the system as a whole. The system is higher than the sum of its terms. At the same time, each individual element in the system acquires a new quality and meaning.

In addition to the functional interaction between systems and their constituent elements, there are external influences that positively or negatively affect the educational process.

An analysis of the school as a system shows that it is distinguished by a continuous change of states, a change in the nature of the connections between the elements, determined by the goals and objectives of the educational process in each age group of students.

With regard to the school, management is an impact based on scientific principles and methods and aimed at the optimal organization of the educational process, ensuring the most complete correspondence of the results achieved with the goal.

The main functions of management include analysis and planning, organization and control, coordination and stimulation.

Analysis is the foundation on which the entire system of planning and organization of the educational process rests.

Planning, as one of the most important management functions, includes determining the most appropriate ways to achieve the goals. It is designed to generate plans, projects, programs, standards, standards, criteria, etc.

Organization is the formation and establishment of relatively stable relations in the managed and managing systems, operating and developing as a whole. It is designed to generate the structure of the school as an organization, order, regime, content of work and assignments.

Coordination implies high efficiency in establishing harmony between all links and areas of the educational process, between the managing and managed systems, changing relationships, motivation, involvement in work, and the growth of creative activity.

Control is an active stage of the management process, when the achieved results are compared with what was planned. The basis of the entire system of control measurements (quantitative and qualitative) is feedback.

It can even be argued that control is designed to generate knowledge about the state of affairs, their adjustment in relation to the desired direction and level.

Stimulation is a system of measures aimed at creating a creatively working teaching staff and active purposeful activity of students.

The educational process can proceed with varying degrees of efficiency. Much also depends on how purposefully and skillfully favorable conditions are created for the optimal and coordinated functioning of all components and links of the educational process for mental development, physical and labor, moral and aesthetic education of schoolchildren, etc.

The most important regularity of management is the unity in terms of ultimate goals and objectives of administrative, pedagogical, family and social influence and the process of forming the personality of schoolchildren.

For the manifestation of this regularity, the coordination of the actions of schools, families and the public is very important. There are many connections between them, and these connections should be included in the process of educating the younger generation.

This means that each managerial act, manifesting itself in its specific forms and methods, must be imbued with pedagogical expediency, rely on an appropriate management system and

to act not only for a specific task, but for the whole complex of educational tasks.

In modern management theory, a special place is occupied by the so-called system approach. It involves conscious and planned management. Connections are established between the spheres of management, the main goal is put forward, then, in accordance with it, particular intermediate goals are formed, tasks are set, ways and deadlines for their solution are thought out, forces are distributed, funds are allocated, work is organized, control and correction are carried out. Schematically, a systematic approach can be represented as the following chain: goal - resources - plan - decision - implementation - control and correction.

For clarity, let's depict this on the diagram (p. 527).

Decision-making. The so-called managerial decision occupies an important place in the management system. All the activities of the school team depend on the decisions of the head of the school. Decisions must be carefully thought out, all possible consequences weighed, goals clearly set and ways to achieve them considered.

These can be organizational and administrative decisions designed for a long period, strategically important and determining the activities of almost the entire school staff. These decisions include: school planning, routine; instructions, rules, statutes, guidelines, lengthy assignments.

These can be decisions of short-term impact: orders, instructions, advice, suggestions.

The second type of decisions: economic, related to the material support of the school. This is a lease agreement, the rules for the creation of paid additional services, the organization of labor camps, workshops, cooperatives. Budgeting, work with sponsors, etc.

The third type of decisions: socio-psychological, associated with moral impact. These are thanks, reprimands, as well as materials and recommendations for studying, describing and implementing best practices.

Here exemplary scheme preparing a solution (see on page 528).

Systematic approach to school management

systems approach - conscious, between areas of management

systematic, regulated management, the establishment of regular relationships

Control I

main goal

Private intermediate goals

Planning, defining the main tasks

The success of school management with a systematic approach depends on "

terms of their decision

Planning the work of the school, correct setting, ranking in order of importance of the goals of the educational process

Distribution of forces

Arrangement of personnel and establishing links between subsystems and conducting ethnmn: tie

Allocation of funds and determination of solution methods

Establishing a system of internal school operational information and efficiency >feedback

Organizational actions, implementation of the decision

Depth and comprehensive pedagogical analysis and timely assistance in order to prevent or eliminate shortcomings

Control and correction

Achievement of the goal

building conditions for the rational organization of work at school

__] Establishment of the necessary psychological microclimate at school

Qualifications and experience of school leaders and systems for improving the pedagogical skills of teachers

Scheme of preparation and decision making

determination of the purpose of the decision

Studying regulatory information

REQUIREMENTS,

applied to managerial decisions

[Study of data and science

learning best practices

(Getting internal current information I

[Get resource data for solution I

(Determination of criteria for evaluating the optimal results of the decision I-

[Analysis of all information, its positive and negative aspects I

development of solution variants and evaluation of their results J

purposefulness

;selection of the main link

1Objectivity

timeliness of decision making and implementation

Pedagogical expediency

Meeting with employees of the management system and the trade union organization

1MAKE A DECISION

System approach to development

Efficiency, concreteness, clarity of presentation

[Formation of the decision, its execution in the form of a document

The history of the development of the school begins with the ancient world. However, the school system as we know it now began to take shape in the 19th century. In this section, we will consider the history of the formation of modern secondary education and ways to manage this system.

In the largest countries of Western Europe and in the USA in the XIX century. there was a formation of national systems of school education. The interest of society and the participation of the state determined the general direction of this process, which in each country had specific features. What was common was the expansion of the state's participation in the school business: its management, the relationship between private and public schools, and resolving the issue of separating the school from the church.

Three interconnected state spheres - legislative, executive and financial - determined the fate of school reform.

In Prussia" General provision about schools" (1794), all educational institutions were declared public. In 1798, the Supreme Council for Education was created in Prussia. In 1808, the council was replaced by a department of the Ministry of the Interior for school education.

Later, state school legislation was developed in France and England.

In France, the introduction of such legislation actually began during the years of the Napoleonic Empire. Then the status of state secondary schools (lyceums) was determined, a system of school districts (universities) was created. In 1801, a law was passed on the organization of communal elementary educational institutions. In 1816, cantonal committees were established which could allocate small sums to support elementary schools. In 1824, the Ministry of Education was established, and in 1833, under Minister Guizot, the first state legislation on primary education was adopted. "Law Guizot" provided that the order of opening, funding and supervision of public schools. By decree of 1835, a school inspection system was established. In the future, the legislation on the management of the school, its relationship with the church was repeatedly supplemented and changed (laws of 1852, 1854, 1866, 1867, 1880-1882). Dzhurinsky AN Foreign school: history and modernity. Ch. II. M., 1992. .

The process of developing school legislation in England turned out to be lengthy. In 1830 Parliament funded the school for the first time. In 1847, a law was issued on state inspection of educational institutions. In 1862, 1870, 1873, 1876, 1891 documents were developed and adopted that constituted a code of laws on the general principles of the school system. "Act of Forster" (1870), acts of 1873 and 1876. The Committee on Education (established in 1839) was turned into the Department of Education and received the functions of the executive branch. The same documents introduced compulsory primary education, government committees were created to monitor school attendance. In 1891, a law on free school education was adopted. The Department of Education acted regularly with legislative initiatives and annually prepared educational and methodological recommendations - "School Codes".

In the United States, the development of state school legislation began immediately after independence. During the 19th century, acts and regulations were issued in individual states that legislatively determined the activities of educational institutions. Almost everywhere New England legislation was taken as a model. In 1867, a federal department (Bureau) of public education was created in Washington.

The role of the state in the development of the school system was strengthened: an extensive network of inspection and supervision was created, and financial subsidies were provided to schools. These functions were taken over by the Ministries of Education of Prussia and France, the Department of Education in England and the US Bureau of Education.

The control system acquired more and more bureaucratic forms. So, in France, according to the decree of 1835, a system of school inspection was created. Numerous inspectors operated in each department of the country, the heads of which were appointed directly by the Minister of Education (since 1854, the inspectors began to report to the chief inspector of the local academy).

State subsidies were strictly regulated. In England, in 1839, a special committee was set up to distribute school subsidies. Since 1846, subsidies began to be allocated not only for the construction and equipment of schools, but also for student allowances (the last item of expenditure in 1853 amounted, for example, to a third of the total). Since 1862, allowances began to be distributed according to the results of examinations among those students who applied for them ("Low's Act"). Under the "Forster Act", subsequent acts and resolutions, subsidies for needy students were distributed by the Department of Education, and approved by Parliament. Financial support for schools was provided selectively by the state. Preference was given to those schools where tuition fees were relatively low and where there were more students who did well and attended school LN Goncharov School and Pedagogy in the USA before the Second World War. Ch. 2. M., 1972. .

The process of institutionalization of the school system was difficult. The state was extremely slow in solving the problems of reforming the school system. Thus, the law of 1763 on compulsory primary education in Prussia was not actually carried out until the 1820s. The law of 1801 in France regarding the organization of communal elementary schools was not mandatory. In 1824, the cantonal committees for the promotion of elementary education, established in 1816 to help organize elementary schools, were closed in France.

The states allocated meager funds to support the school business, for example, in France, the state budget of 1864 allocated 6.8 million francs for public education - 53 times (!) Less than the military department received. Wage French teachers was, according to contemporaries, beggarly. "A drop in the ocean" looked like government loans for a school in England. In 1833-1846. annual expenses for English school did not exceed 0.97% of the state budget. In 1839, these expenses amounted to only 1.5% of the amounts required by the minimum elementary school.

The organization of school management in Western countries took place with the interaction of two main trends: centralization and decentralization.

In Prussia and France, schooling was centralized. In these states, the regime of school management that arose under absolutism was strictly encouraged. So, in Prussia, by acts of 1852, 1854, 1872. the role of central school bodies was sharply strengthened. Local communities were entrusted with the obligation to comply with the instructions of the center, which were so regulated that the school was more like an army in its order. The teachers' initiative was limited. The management of school affairs was in the hands of the bureaucratic apparatus of the Ministry of Education. All educational institutions without exception were subject to state control. Primary school teachers were considered civil servants and appointed by the government. The schools were administered by inspectors who reported directly to the Minister of Education. In the provinces, the supreme authority over the school was exercised by the governor, who headed the school land council, appointed inspectors on the recommendation of the minister. The school land council approved the candidates for teachers who were proposed by the school councils of the communities Essays on the history of schools and pedagogy abroad. Ch. P. Ch. II - V. M., 1989 ..

In France, the management of the school was the responsibility of government bodies headed by the Minister of Education. On the ground, influential people from the propertied strata took part in the management of the school: representatives of communes and cantons. The country was divided into pedagogical districts (academies). In the middle of the XIX century. there were sixteen such academies. The rectors of the academies were subordinate to the Minister of Education. In addition to the ministry, there was also the Council for Public Education. To break the corporate spirit of the academies, the Ministry of Education repeatedly shuffled the composition of the educational districts. As a result, the inspector of the academy was seen as their boss not by the rector, but by the head of the local administration - the prefect. Local initiative was severely limited. Centralization was strengthened by increasing the role of the ministry, rectors of academies, and prefects.

The trend towards decentralization of school affairs manifested itself in different ways. In France and Prussia, it was hampered by traditions inherited from the era of absolutism. At the same time, in England and the United States, the development of the school system took place in the direction of decentralization. The prerogatives of the Department of Education in England and the Bureau of Education in the USA were limited primarily to a certain coordination of the nationwide school policy.

In England, school legislation gave greater rights and functions to local authorities. London schools, for example, had their own status and administration. School committees were elected in the districts, which drew up school charters, levied an education tax, and opened educational institutions. There was no uniformity in the structure of secondary schools. Each school operated according to its own charter.

In the United States, a decentralized system of school management took shape under special conditions, when statehood was just being formed and the states had considerable independence. The school laws of the individual states were largely similar. In the states and counties there were educational districts (districts) under the direction of a director (quartermaster) chosen by the residents. Schools were opened in districts. Gradually, school committees and posts of superintendents were established in all states, coordinating educational policy in the state. The school committee consisted of the governor and lieutenant governor of the state, as well as the superintendent. The direct management of schools was carried out by councils elected by the community. Districts and schools were virtually independent of the federal Bureau of Education and were subject to state governments. The states retained the right to control the activities of schools, determine the principles of education, types of educational institutions, terms and programs of study, the content of education, the establishment of school management bodies, and the distribution of funds for education. District officials levied school taxes, appointed teachers, compiled school programs and plans Essays on the history of schools and pedagogy abroad. Ch. P. Ch. II - V. M., 1989 ..

All school systems in the West have had private schools that were in one way or another under state control. The position of private schools in different countries evolved in different ways.

In Prussia, the state actively intervened in the activities of private educational institutions. Since 1794, legislation has been in force here, according to which all schools, including private ones, were subject to government control. Control was carried out through inspectors and provided for compliance with standard programs, charters, etc.

In France, the activities of the "free", ie. private schools were guaranteed by the laws of 1850, 1867, 1880s. In private educational institutions, there was control in the person of the government inspectorate. Until the adoption of laws in the 1880s. public funds (municipal and national) were allocated for private schools.

In England, private schools were in a very strong position. Until 1870, the activities of educational institutions largely depended on private individuals and their money. School legislation retained a large scope for private initiative in the field of education. Any person who guaranteed the education of a certain number of students had the right to open a school. The founders and teachers of private schools were not required to have certificates of pedagogical training. Until 1832, charitable organizations were engaged in the establishment of private primary schools: the National Society, the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, etc. They opened schools for the poor, Sunday schools, etc. The law of 1832 confirmed that private initiative in the school business will not be infringed in any way. "Forster's Law" (1870) provided for the allocation of public loans for private schools. Vulfson B.L. Pedagogical thought of modern France. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983 - 184 p..

Secondary educational institutions in England, in fact, were private. Since the 1860s there is a certain "nationalization" of the secondary education sector, it is expressed in lending from public and national funds of grammar schools. However, the program, the schedule of activities was still determined by the organizers of these schools.

In the United States, as in England, the ranks of private schools included many community-supported schools.

The presence of private schools was a significant factor in the transformation of the composition of students in public educational institutions. For example, in France in the middle of the XIX century. the number of students in public and national secondary schools has declined due to the transfer of many of them to private schools. At the same time, the social composition of students in public secondary schools also changed: the proportion of people from the petty and middle bourgeoisie increased and, on the contrary, the number of young people whose parents belonged to the highest circles decreased.

The vast majority of private educational institutions were in the hands of representatives of various denominations and churches. The position of the church in the system of education, especially private education, remained very strong. For example, in France in the early 60s. in private primary Catholic schools, up to 20% of boys and about 60% of girls were enrolled in the total number of students. By the beginning of the 70s. the number of "free" and public educational institutions reached a ratio of 1:4 Vulfson B.L. Pedagogical thought of modern France. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983 - 184 p..

Thus, the development of the secondary school in the West during the 19th century was expressed in the creation of educational institutions of the classical and modern education. The latter were becoming more and more widespread, being a sign of the new time, therefore, we can say that during the 19th century, the emergence and development of modern way management of general educational institutions.

In Russia, the theory of education management was originally developed as school science. After the October Revolution of 1917, a centralized state system of educational institutions was created, but in the specialized literature, management issues were considered mainly in relation to the field of general education. The first documents of the Soviet government about the school were based on democratic ideas and provided for the decentralization of school management, private initiative in school affairs, student self-government, and the broad participation of local societies and bodies in education. However, since the mid-1920s the volume and content of general education began to be determined by the programs of the People's Commissariat for Education. The internal management of the school was also tightened. In the early 30s. The People's Commissariat of Education actually turned into an organ for the execution of party directives. An administrative-command system was formed, which, although it evolved in the future, but, in fact, did not change for almost 50 years. Essays on the history of the school and the pedagogical thoughts of the peoples of the USSR from ancient times to late XVII in. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1989 - 480 p.

From the end of the 80s. in Russian Federation efforts are being made to update the scientific basis for managing the educational system. The result of a comprehensive scientific work was adopted by the Government in 1991, the "Program for the Stabilization and Development of Russian Education in the Transitional Period." The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" delineates the competence of the authorities at various levels, created the legal basis for the formation of a decentralized management system. To this end, the competence of state educational authorities included:

Development and implementation of targeted federal and international programs in the field of education;

Development of state educational standards;

Establishing the equivalence of education documents;

State accreditation of educational institutions;

Establishment of the procedure for attestation and requirements for the education of specialists of educational institutions;

Formation of the structure of the education system, etc.

At the same time, domestic didactics proceeds from the fact that the educational system can work simultaneously in 2 modes: functioning and development. Accordingly, the types of management of the educational system also differ. In the first case, the object of management is educational processes and the program-methodical, personnel, material-technical and regulatory conditions that provide them, and the goal is the effective use of the potential available in the educational system. In the second case, the object of management is the actual changes in the content, organization and technologies of the educational process in order to increase the educational potential, to consistently increase its effectiveness.

To implement and ensure management functions - planning, organization, management, monitoring and control - management systems are created. Within each of them, it is possible to consider interrelated, but relatively independent components: human, material, technical, informational, regulatory, etc. In addition, management is specific at various levels: national (federal), regional, municipal (local) and at educational institution level. However, its individual elements have common methodological, methodological and technological positions. This, first of all, refers to solving the problems of monitoring the education system. Essays on the history of the school and the pedagogical thoughts of the peoples of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1989 - 480 p.

Thus, we can conclude that the management of the educational system is a special type of social management that supports the purposefulness and organization of educational, innovative and supporting processes in the education system. Obeying the general laws of social management, it has specific features due to the ways of setting and achieving socially significant goals in the specific conditions of an organized educational process.

The origin of the theory of management of the educational system of the state is associated with the spread of mass education. In this regard, in the 2nd half of the XIX century. within the framework of traditional pedagogy, a special section was singled out - “school studies”. At the beginning of the XX century. the internal organization of various educational institutions, their interaction with the state and society began to be considered from the standpoint of the theory of administrative management, first systematized by A. Fayol (France, 1916). The main principles of its management were: division of labor, power and responsibility, discipline, unity of management and leadership, subordination of private interests to common ones, remuneration, centralization, hierarchy, order, justice, constancy of the composition of performers, initiative, unity of personnel. Subetto A.I. Systematological foundations of educational systems. In 2 volumes. M.: ITs PKPS, 1994.

The formation and development of the system of preschool education began at the end of the 19th century. The appearance of kindergartens in the West is associated with the name of the German teacher Froebel. In Russia, preschool educational institutions appeared thanks to E.I. Tiheeva.

preschool management educational institutions was carried out in accordance with the characteristics of the learning process and, in general, practically did not differ from school management. Management Goal preschool- provide the most comfortable conditions for the upbringing and development of preschool children.

Thus, the historically established system of managing schools and kindergartens has received its own characteristics, which are still relevant today.