To maintain and streamline the domestic market in 1719, the College of Commerce was created. Later, the Main and city magistrates were established, whose functions included all kinds of assistance to the merchants, their self-government, and the creation of guilds.

In order to improve trade routes, the government for the first time in the history of the country began the construction of canals. So, in 1703-1709, the Vyshnevolotsky canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system, the Ladoga (1718) canal, completed shortly after the death of Peter, the Volga-Don (1698) canal, the construction of which was completed only in 1952, began. The land roads were very bad, during the period of rains and mudslides they became impassable, which, of course, hindered the development of regular trade relations. In addition, there were still many internal customs duties in the country, which also held back the growth of the all-Russian market.

It should be noted that the development of domestic trade was held back by the "money hunger", the country still experienced an acute shortage of monetary metals. The money turnover consisted mainly of small copper coins. The silver kopeck was a very large monetary unit, often it was chopped into several parts, each of which made an independent turnover.

In 1704, Peter I began a monetary reform. Silver ruble coins, or simply rubles, began to be issued, which until Peter the Great remained only a conditional counting unit (the ruble did not exist as a coin). The silver thaler was taken as a weight unit of the ruble, although the silver content in the ruble was less than in the thaler. A portrait of Peter I, a double-headed eagle, the year of issue and the inscription "Tsar Peter Alekseevich" were stamped on the ruble. Kolomiets A. G. History of the fatherland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.326.

The new monetary system was based on a very simple and rational decimal principle: 1 ruble \u003d 10 hryvnias \u003d 100 kopecks. By the way, many Western countries came to such a system much later. Fifty kopecks were issued - 50 kopecks, half-fifty kopecks - 25 kopecks, nickels - 5 kopecks. Later, altyn - 3 kopecks and five-altyn - 15 kopecks were added to them. The minting of coins became a strict and unconditional monopoly of the state, a ban was announced on the export of precious metals abroad. Pushkarev S.G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.161. In the same period, the search for domestic silver deposits in Transbaikalia, in the Nerchinsk region, was crowned with success. The strengthening of the monetary system was also facilitated by an increase in exports and a positive foreign trade balance.

Under Peter I, gold coins were also issued: Caesar's rubles and chervonets. The first of them were often used as a military award to the lower ranks - soldiers, while the ruble was hung like a medal around the neck. Chervonets, on the other hand, mainly served foreign trade turnover and had almost no circulation inside the country.

Initially, the Peter's ruble was quite valuable and was equal to 8 1/3 spools of pure silver (1 spool = 4.3 g). Later, as a result of negative economic changes in the country, the ruble gradually "lost weight", first to 5 5/6, and then to 4 spools. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.327.

Peter's reforms also affected foreign trade, which began to actively develop due, first of all, to access to the Baltic Sea. The purposeful policy of mercantilism pursued by the government contributed to the strengthening of the foreign trade orientation of the Russian economy. One of the ideologists of mercantilism was the Russian thinker-economist I.T. Pososhkov, who in 1724 published The Book of Poverty and Wealth. In it, he emphasized that the country needed to create technically advanced enterprises based on domestic raw materials in order to be able to confidently enter the foreign market.

Supporters of mercantilism believed that the country should achieve an active foreign trade balance, i.e. excess of income from the export of goods over the costs of importing goods into the country. For example, in 1726, export from Russia through the main seaports - St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Riga - amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and import - 2.1 million.

An obligatory element of mercantilism is the establishment of strict customs barriers to protect domestic producers from foreign competitors. So, in 1724, a customs tariff was established, according to which a duty of up to 75% of their value was established on the import of such foreign goods as iron, canvas, silk fabrics in order to stimulate their production in their own country. Up to 50% duty was set on Dutch linen, velvet, silver and other goods, up to 25% - on those goods that were produced in Russia in insufficient quantities: woolen fabrics, writing paper, up to 10% - on copper utensils, window glass, etc. .d.

High export duties were imposed on raw materials necessary for domestic entrepreneurs so that they would not leave the country. The state kept basically all foreign trade in its hands through monopoly trading companies and farming out. The main currency used in foreign circulation was still the silver thaler (yefimok). Pushkarev S. G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.160.

Significant changes also took place in the structure of foreign trade. If at the beginning of the 18th century mainly products were exported Agriculture and raw materials, then by the mid-1720s, manufacturing products began to occupy a larger share: Ural iron from the Demidov factories, linen, ropes, canvas. In imports, as before, the largest volume was occupied by luxury goods for members of the royal family and nobles, as well as colonial goods: tea, coffee, spices, sugar, wines. Thanks to the energetic actions of Peter, Russia from 1712 for the first time in history stopped buying weapons in Europe.

During the first decades of the 18th century, the geography of Russian foreign trade centers also changed. If in the 17th century Arkhangelsk played the main role in trade with the West, then St. Petersburg soon took its place, and later - Riga, Revel (Tallinn), Vyborg, Narva. Trade relations with Persia and India were conducted along the Volga through Astrakhan and the Caspian Sea, with China - through Kyakhta. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.328.

Protectionist policies and

Mercantilism. Financial

Reform

The accelerated pace of development of Russian industry required the development of trade. In the theoretical works of F. Saltykov (“Propositions”), I. Pososhkov (“The Book of Poverty and Wealth”), Russian economic thought was further developed, the theory of mercantilism, which provided for the economic policy of the state, aimed at attracting as much money as possible to the country through the export of goods. With such an unprecedented scale of construction of various manufactories, money was constantly needed. Moreover, the money had to be kept in the country. In this regard, Peter I creates conditions for encouraging domestic producers. Industrial, commercial companies, agricultural workers are given various privileges so that the export of products exceeds the import. He imposed high duties on imported goods (37%), In order to develop domestic trade, he adopted a special document on fairs.

In 1698, the construction of the Volga-Don Canal began, which was supposed to connect the largest water arteries of Russia and contribute to the expansion of domestic trade. The Vyshnevolotsky canal was built, which connected the Caspian and the Baltic through the rivers.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. branches expanded not only in the field of industry, but also in the field of agriculture. New agricultural crops were imported into Russia, the development of which led to the creation of viticulture, tobacco growing, the breeding of new breeds of livestock, medicinal herbs, potatoes, tomatoes, etc. d.

At the same time, the encouragement of state-owned industry and trade led to the restriction of "unspecified" trade by landlords and peasants, which prevented the free development of market relations in the Petrine era. The management of industry and trade was carried out by the Berg Manufactory College and the Commerce College.

The continuous growth of government spending on the development of industry, military needs determined the financial policy. Financial functions were carried out by three institutions: the Chamber College was engaged in the collection of income, the Staff Office College - the distribution of funds, the Audit College - controlled the first two institutions, that is, collection and distribution.

In accordance with the requirements of the time and the search for funds, the Russian Tsar strengthened the state monopoly on a number of goods: tobacco, salt, fur, caviar, resin, etc. By decree of Peter I, special persons - the staff of profitmakers - looked for the newest various sources income. Taxes were imposed on windows, pipes, doors, frames, duties were set for mooring and mooring, for places in bazaars, etc. In total, there were up to 40 such taxes. In addition, direct taxes were introduced on the purchase of horses, on provisions for the fleet, etc. In order to replenishment of the treasury was carried out monetary reform.

Ever since the end of the 17th century. the restructuring of the monetary system of Russia began. A new monetary system was created, reducing the weight of the coin, replacing small silver coins with copper ones, and degrading the fineness of silver. As a result of the financial reform, coins of various denominations appeared: copper ruble, half a ruble, half a half, hryvnia, kopeck, money, polushka, etc. Gold (single, double chervonets, two-rouble coins) and silver coins (hryvnia, piglet, penny, altyn, kopeck) were also preserved. Gold chervonets and silver rubles became hard convertible currencies.

The reform had both positive and negative consequences. Firstly, it led to significant state revenues, replenished the treasury. If in 1700 the Russian treasury totaled 2.5 million rubles, then in 1703 - 4.4 million rubles. And, secondly, monetary transactions caused a fall in the ruble exchange rate and a 2-fold increase in prices for goods.

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Introduction

1. The state and development of Russian industry under Peter 1

2. Reform of the management system under Peter 1

3. Domestic and foreign trade under Peter 1

4. Changes in the financial system under Peter 1

5. Military reform Petra 1

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

This essay will consider the topic: "Russia under Peter 1".

During the reign of Peter 1, Russia turned into a great power with an efficient economy, powerful army and navy, highly developed science and culture. All these achievements would be very desirable to see in modern Russia.

Russia's advance was swift and decisive. Peter maintained vigor in his like-minded people, faith in success, he was in a hurry to have time to do a lot, and it is not without reason that the Petrine era is called “Young Russia”. But all these transformations often took place through violence, through the suffering of the people, through a sharp break in the customs, habits, psychology of people, through extremism, intolerance, unwillingness to reckon with the internal conditions for reforms. The planting of the new went through a fierce struggle with the old. Despite the fact that Peter was a supporter of the Western path of development and Western rationalism, he carried out his reforms in an Asian way.

It should also be emphasized that in trying to get closer to Western European civilization, introducing everything advanced and useful, Peter forgot about Russia's originality, about its dual Eurasian essence. He believed that all the origins of her backwardness lie in Asian roots. Striving for Europe, Peter often adopted only external forms progressive ideas, ignoring the inner essence of age-old traditions.

Adopting advanced technologies, scientific, military and other achievements in the West, Peter did not seem to notice the development of the ideas of humanism there, all the more not wanting to introduce them to Russian soil.

And yet, the significance of the great changes in the life of Russia, carried out in the era of Peter the Great, can hardly be overestimated.

1. State and r industrial development Russia under Peter 1

Undoubtedly, the young tsar's determination to start cardinal reforms was influenced by failures in the war with Sweden and Turkey for access to the Baltic and Black Seas. Military failures showed, first of all, the backwardness of domestic metallurgy. Indeed, until the very beginning of the 18th century, Russia imported, mainly from Sweden, iron, copper, tin, and weapons. The war in the Baltics stopped these supplies, so the development of our own metallurgical production became a strategic problem.

The government made great efforts to build iron-making manufactories at the expense of the treasury in the Urals and in the Olonets region. The first decade of the 18th century can be characterized as a period of active state intervention in the economy and encouragement of private enterprise. The transfer of state-owned enterprises, especially unprofitable ones, to private "particular" owners, foreigners or commercial and industrial companies - the merchants - has become a common phenomenon. The state assumed the costs of training workers, supplied equipment, and sent specialists to these enterprises. For especially important industries, various privileges were given, soft loans, free land plots for the construction of new factories.

It should be emphasized that these emergency measures played a role decisive role in creating a powerful material base for the army, which made it possible to defeat Sweden in the Northern War. As a result, Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea and returned its lands, which had long been part of the Novgorod principality. In 1703, the city of St. Petersburg was founded, which in 1713 became the new capital of Russia. Isaev I.A. History of the state and law of Russia: Proc. for universities on special and the direction of Jurisprudence” / Mosk. state legal acad. - M.: Jurist, 1998. - S.235.

The first manufactories appeared in Russia as early as the 17th century, but they did not play a significant role in the economy at that time. It is from the 18th century that the manufacturing period begins in national economy, since the manufacturing system became predominant in comparison with handicraft production. Since the 17th century, manufactories in Russia began to be called Western - "factories", although, as you know, factories were based on a system of various machines and freelance labor, which were almost non-existent in Russia at that time.

Since there were almost no free workers in the country, the main problem in organizing manufactories was to provide them with hired labor. If in the first years of the 18th century it was still possible to find free (“walking”, runaway) people who did not fall into serfdom, then later, when the process of enslavement intensified and the search for runaway peasants became more strict, the number of “staggering” people sharply decreased in the country . The government increased the scale of forced labor, when entire villages and villages were assigned to enterprises, at first only for the autumn-winter period, and then for good. Zuev M.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. Tutorial. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - S.218.

In addition to state-owned and patrimonial, possession-based, or conditional, manufactories began to appear (lat. Possessio - conditional possession). Since 1721, by decree of Peter I, it was allowed to buy serfs to non-nobles (merchants, rich townspeople from among artisans). In this case, the peasants were assigned to the enterprise and constituted a single whole. These peasants could no longer be sold separately; such manufactories were bought and sold only under certain conditions. The activities of the owners of possession manufactories were monitored by the state. These owners were subsequently exempted from compulsory civil service, had tax and customs privileges. Dispersed manufactories also continued to develop, which arose on the basis of merchant capital and tied domestic peasant production to commercial and industrial capital.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, there was a noticeable increase in manufactory production. And if at the end of the 17th century there were about 20 manufactories in the country, then in the mid-1720s there were already 205 manufactories and large enterprises of a handicraft type, among which 90 belonged to the treasury and 115 to private capital. There were especially many metallurgical enterprises: 52 - in ferrous metallurgy, 17 - in non-ferrous metallurgy, which were mainly located in the Urals and Tula. On the shores of Lake Onega in 1703, an iron foundry and ironworks were built, which laid the foundation for the city of Petrozavodsk. In addition, in the 1720s there were 18 sawmills, 17 gunpowder factories, 15 cloth factories, 11 leather factories, as well as enterprises for the production of glass, porcelain, paper, etc. Livshits A.Ya. Economic reform in Russia and its price. - M.: Prospekt, 2001. - P. 111.

The transformation of the Urals into the largest world center of metallurgy was a notable economic event in Russia at that time. In 1699, on the initiative of Peter, ironworks were built on the Neva River, which, since 1702, were transferred to the former Tula blacksmith Nikita Demidov. The Ural factories of the Demidovs and other entrepreneurs were at the advanced technical level, even by European criteria. The products of metallurgical plants were of high quality, they began to export them to Europe, and soon Russia came out on top in Europe in the production of pig iron. If in 1700 150 thousand poods were produced, then in 1725 - about 800 thousand poods of cast iron (1 pood = 16 kg).

In order to provide metallurgical production with raw materials, the search for various natural resources was strongly encouraged in the country. All lucky "miners" for the discovery of new deposits were supposed to be generously paid. In 1700, the Ore Order was created, later renamed the Berg Collegium, which was in charge of not only metallurgical production, but also geological exploration. To encourage search natural resources, the government announced the principle of "mining freedom", according to which anyone could develop subsoil for a small fee in favor of the state or a private owner of the land.

In addition to large manufactories, the Russian economy still had a large handicraft sector in the cities, as well as home crafts in the countryside as an integral part of the natural feudal estate, although these manufacturers were increasingly dependent on market relations in the person of buyers of products. Urban and rural artisans produced fabrics, leather and felted shoes, pottery, saddles, harness and other items. In the 18th century, craft specialties appeared associated with the new way of life brought from Europe by Peter I: braiders, snuff makers, watchmakers, carriage makers, hat makers, hairdressers, bookbinders, etc. Zuev M.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. Tutorial. - M.: Bustard, 2002. -

Under Peter I, an attempt was made to put small handicraft production under state control. So, in 1722, by decree of the king, artisans were to join the workshops. Foremen were elected in the shops, who monitored the quality of products, the procedure for admission to the shop organization. Apprentices had to master the craft for seven years to become an apprentice, and those, in turn, could become masters no earlier than two years later. True, these shop organizations did not have that strict regulation on the production and marketing of products that existed in medieval Europe, and in general this system did not have such a distribution as in the West.

2. Management reform under Peter 1

Peter I sought to carry out internal transformations in Russia in order to bring it to the European level. In addition to military and diplomatic problems, he deeply delved into all issues of the Russian government controlled. For 25 years - from 1700 to 1725 - he adopted almost three thousand different laws and decrees concerning the economic, civil, domestic aspects of the life of the population, including the administrative structures of the state. As well as reforms in industrial production, the reform of the system of state and local government was associated primarily with the military needs of the country. In the first years of his reign, the young king dealt with these issues occasionally, in a hurry. And only in the last seven or eight years of his reign, thanks to his efforts, the activities of all administrative institutions received a regulatory framework and were regulated according to a certain system.

Radical comprehensive reforms in the field of government were due to the need to strengthen the absolute monarchy. First of all, it was necessary to create a harmonious administrative vertical, completely subordinate to the supreme authority. This was aimed at a radical reorganization of the entire structure of public administration from top to bottom. Kargalov V.V., Saveliev Yu.S., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. - M.:

The main object of the reorganization was the Boyar Duma, which constantly interfered in the affairs of Peter's predecessors and which no longer corresponded to the regime of absolute monarchy. In 1699, instead of the Boyar Duma, Peter established the Closest Office of eight trusted persons to assist in solving state affairs, which he called the Council of Ministers.

In 1711, he abolished this structure as well, creating governing Senate of nine people appointed by him. It was the highest state body with legislative, administrative and judicial power. In January 1722, new positions of Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor of the Senate were established to oversee the activities of the Senate.

The emperor became the head of state power. This title was granted to Peter by the Senate in 1721 after the victorious end of the Northern War with Sweden, and Russia was proclaimed an empire. From now on, Peter and his heirs began to have unlimited power, the right to introduce strict regulation in management, ideology, social life, and culture.

Peter I spent a lot of time reforming the obsolete command system. In 1717-1718, almost the entire numerous, complex, confusing unsystematic "crowd" of orders was replaced by collegiums - new governing bodies. Unlike orders, which, as a rule, had regional competence, collegiums had nationwide powers, which in itself created a higher level of centralization. In total, eleven collegia were created: the Military Collegium was in charge of the army, the Admiralty Collegium was in charge of the fleet, the Justice Collegium was in charge of legislation, the Manufactory Collegium was in charge of industry, etc. Later, the rights of the college were endowed with the Holy Synod, which led church affairs, as well as the Chief Magistrate, who was in charge of city affairs. Kargalov V.V., Saveliev Yu.S., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. - M.:

The boards were created according to the Swedish model, but taking into account Russian conditions. Each of them included a president, vice president, advisers, assistants, secretary. The president of the board, as a rule, was Russian, and the vice president was a foreigner. The work in the colleges was clearly organized, in contrast to the ordered confusion and confusion. Peter sincerely hoped that the collegiate system would not carry the old vices: arbitrariness, abuse, red tape, bribery. But the king's hopes were not destined to come true, because in the conditions of the incredible strengthening of the role of the bureaucracy, the scale of these vices only grew.

In 1708-1710, a provincial reform was carried out, according to which the whole country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov, Arkhangelsk, Siberia. Provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. In the hands of the governor were concentrated administrative, judicial, police, financial functions, in accordance with which taxes were collected, recruited, search for fugitive peasants, court cases were considered, and food was provided to the troops.

Subsequently, Peter repeatedly returned to the problem of reorganizing local government. In 1719, the second provincial reform was carried out, the number of provinces increased to eleven, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which were directly subordinate to the colleges and the Senate. In accordance with the reform, the power of the governor extended only to the province of the provincial city, and in the rest of the provinces, voivodes were in power, who were subordinate to the governors in military and judicial matters.

Simultaneously with the provincial reform, it was also planned to carry out the urban reform. Peter wanted to give the cities full self-government so that they could choose burgomasters there. However, in contrast to Western Europe, Russian cities of the early 18th century had not yet formed a rich and influential bourgeoisie that could take over city government. In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, who was supposed to lead the urban estates in Russia. Reader on the history of the state and law of Russia. / Ed. Chibiryaeva S.A. - M.: Bylina, 2000.

It should be noted that the administrative system created in the course of Peter the Great's reforms turned out to be very strong. In general terms, it was preserved (with some changes) until 1917. The management structure, the mechanism of power and its functions remained unshakable for almost two centuries.

Peter's reforms were undoubtedly directed against the old boyar aristocracy, which did not want change and the strengthening of a strong centralized power. At the same time, Peter relied on the local nobility, which, being a more progressive young estate, supported the course towards strengthening the absolute monarchy. In order to provide economic support to the nobility, in 1714 Peter issued a Decree on Uniform Succession, according to which the two forms of feudal landed property (patrimonies and estates) were finally merged into a single legal concept - “immovable property”. Both types of farms were equalized in all respects, the estate also became a hereditary, and not a conditional farm, they could not be divided between heirs. Estates were inherited only by one of the sons, usually the eldest. The rest of the children received an inheritance in money and other property, they were required to enter the military or civil (civilian) service.

This Decree closely adjoined the introduction in 1722 of the Table of Ranks. According to this Table, all positions of the state and military service were divided into 14 classes-ranks from the lowest - the fourteenth, to the highest - the first. In accordance with the Table, employees from among the nobility or burghers were required to pass these steps in order to be promoted. This document introduced the principle of length of service and finally eliminated the previously canceled principle of parochialism, which still tacitly existed in the country. The most interested in the introduction of this order were the nobles, who could now rise to the highest state ranks, really join the power. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1990. - P.72.

It is appropriate to recall that under Peter the nobility were not the privileged class that it became in the second half of the 18th century. They were still service people who were on the public service. If in pre-Petrine times the nobles returned home after military campaigns, then under Peter they had to join regular regiments from the age of 15, go through a long soldier’s service “from the foundation” and only after that receive an officer’s rank and serve in the army until old age or disability. On the other hand, every soldier who rose to the rank of officer received hereditary nobility.

In addition to service duty, academic duty was also assigned to the nobles. Hundreds of young nobles had to study military or naval affairs in Russia or abroad. All male noble children were required to learn literacy, tsifiri (arithmetic) and geometry, otherwise they were not allowed to marry. Reader on the history of the state and law of Russia. / Ed. Chibiryaeva S.A. - M.: Bylina, 2000. - S.289.

A distinctive feature of the Russian autocracy in pre-Petrine times was the complete merging of church and state. While in Western Europe the church was moving further and further away from state administration, in Russia in the 17th century there was a so-called churched state. The king himself acted both as the supreme ruler of the church and as the head of state; religious ideas were the main ones in secular life.

Peter I destroyed this tradition and carried out a church reform, completely subordinating the church to the state. After the death of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Andrian in 1700, the patriarchate was abolished (which was restored only after February Revolution 1917). In 1721, the Holy Synod was established - a special "spiritual board" to manage the affairs of the church. At the head of the Holy Synod was the chief procurator, a secular person, usually from guards officers. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Tsar himself. The economic rights of the church were noticeably limited, its huge land plots were cut, part of its income began to be withdrawn to the state budget. Pushkarev S. G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.158.

Starting with Peter I, the state began to interfere in religious life, followed the obligatory communion of all Orthodox. Through the Synod, the secrecy of confession was abolished, the priests were obliged to report to the Privy Office about the confessions of parishioners made during confession, if they concerned the interests of the state. From now on, the Church was obliged in all worldly affairs to obey the orders of secular authorities.

3. Domestic and foreign trade under Peter 1

To maintain and streamline the domestic market in 1719, the College of Commerce was created. Later, the Main and city magistrates were established, whose functions included all kinds of assistance to the merchants, their self-government, and the creation of guilds.

In order to improve trade routes, the government for the first time in the history of the country began the construction of canals. So, in 1703-1709, the Vyshnevolotsky canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system, the Ladoga (1718) canal, completed shortly after the death of Peter, the Volga-Don (1698) canal, the construction of which was completed only in 1952, began. The land roads were very bad, during the period of rains and mudslides they became impassable, which, of course, hindered the development of regular trade relations. In addition, there were still many internal customs duties in the country, which also held back the growth of the all-Russian market.

It should be noted that the development of domestic trade was held back by the "money hunger", the country still experienced an acute shortage of monetary metals. The money turnover consisted mainly of small copper coins. The silver kopeck was a very large monetary unit, often it was chopped into several parts, each of which made an independent turnover.

In 1704, Peter I began a monetary reform. Silver ruble coins, or simply rubles, began to be issued, which until Peter the Great remained only a conditional counting unit (the ruble did not exist as a coin). The silver thaler was taken as a weight unit of the ruble, although the silver content in the ruble was less than in the thaler. A portrait of Peter I, a double-headed eagle, the year of issue and the inscription "Tsar Peter Alekseevich" were stamped on the ruble. Kolomiets A. G. History of the fatherland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.326.

The new monetary system was based on a very simple and rational decimal principle: 1 ruble \u003d 10 hryvnias \u003d 100 kopecks. By the way, many Western countries came to such a system much later. Fifty kopecks were issued - 50 kopecks, half-fifty kopecks - 25 kopecks, nickels - 5 kopecks. Later, altyn - 3 kopecks and five-altyn - 15 kopecks were added to them. The minting of coins became a strict and unconditional monopoly of the state, a ban was announced on the export of precious metals abroad. Pushkarev S.G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.161. In the same period, the search for domestic silver deposits in Transbaikalia, in the Nerchinsk region, was crowned with success. The strengthening of the monetary system was also facilitated by an increase in exports and a positive foreign trade balance.

Under Peter I, gold coins were also issued: Caesar's rubles and chervonets. The first of them were often used as a military award to the lower ranks - soldiers, while the ruble was hung like a medal around the neck. Chervonets, on the other hand, mainly served foreign trade turnover and had almost no circulation inside the country.

Initially, the Peter's ruble was quite valuable and was equal to 8 1/3 spools of pure silver (1 spool = 4.3 g). Later, as a result of negative economic changes in the country, the ruble gradually "lost weight", first to 5 5/6, and then to 4 spools. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.327.

Peter's reforms also affected foreign trade, which began to actively develop due, first of all, to access to the Baltic Sea. The purposeful policy of mercantilism pursued by the government contributed to the strengthening of the foreign trade orientation of the Russian economy. One of the ideologists of mercantilism was the Russian thinker-economist I.T. Pososhkov, who in 1724 published The Book of Poverty and Wealth. In it, he emphasized that the country needed to create technically advanced enterprises based on domestic raw materials in order to be able to confidently enter the foreign market.

Supporters of mercantilism believed that the country should achieve an active foreign trade balance, i.e. excess of income from the export of goods over the costs of importing goods into the country. For example, in 1726, export from Russia through the main seaports - St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Riga - amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and import - 2.1 million.

An obligatory element of mercantilism is the establishment of strict customs barriers to protect domestic producers from foreign competitors. So, in 1724, a customs tariff was established, according to which a duty of up to 75% of their value was established on the import of such foreign goods as iron, canvas, silk fabrics in order to stimulate their production in their own country. Up to 50% duty was set on Dutch linen, velvet, silver and other goods, up to 25% - on those goods that were produced in Russia in insufficient quantities: woolen fabrics, writing paper, up to 10% - on copper utensils, window glass, etc. .d.

High export duties were imposed on raw materials necessary for domestic entrepreneurs so that they would not leave the country. The state kept basically all foreign trade in its hands through monopoly trading companies and farming out. The main currency used in foreign circulation was still the silver thaler (yefimok). Pushkarev S. G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.160.

Significant changes also took place in the structure of foreign trade. If at the beginning of the 18th century mainly agricultural products and raw materials were exported, then by the mid-1720s, manufacturing products began to occupy a larger share: Ural iron from the Demidov factories, linen, ropes, canvas. In imports, as before, the largest volume was occupied by luxury goods for members of the royal family and nobles, as well as colonial goods: tea, coffee, spices, sugar, wines. Thanks to the energetic actions of Peter, Russia from 1712 for the first time in history stopped buying weapons in Europe.

During the first decades of the 18th century, the geography of Russian foreign trade centers also changed. If in the 17th century Arkhangelsk played the main role in trade with the West, then St. Petersburg soon took its place, and later - Riga, Revel (Tallinn), Vyborg, Narva. Trade relations with Persia and India were conducted along the Volga through Astrakhan and the Caspian Sea, with China - through Kyakhta. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - S.328.

4. Changes in the financial system under Peter 1

The northern war with Sweden, the southern campaigns to the Sea of ​​Azov, the construction of the fleet, manufactories, canals, cities constantly demanded huge government spending. The Russian budget was in critical condition. The task was set to find all new tax revenues. Specially authorized people - profitmakers - were sent in search of new objects of taxation. Starting from 1704, one after another, an endless series of new taxes was established: mill, bee, cellar, bath, pipe - from stoves, homute, cap, shoe, icebreaking, watering, from schismatics, cabbies, inns, from beards, sales of edibles, sharpening knives and other "petty all sorts of fees."

State monopolies were added to the new taxes. In addition to resin, potash, rhubarb, glue, new monopoly goods were added: salt, tobacco, chalk, tar, fish oil, lard, oak coffins. Fishing became an object of ransom, wine was sold only in state-owned taverns.

The main income came from direct taxes, which were imposed only on the "vile" estates. At the end of Peter's reign, many petty fees were abolished. And in order to increase state revenues, instead of the household tax that existed since 1679, in 1718-1724, a poll tax was introduced from the revision soul, which was paid not only from a working man, but also from boys, old people and even those who died, but were still listed in revision lists. The landlord peasants paid 74 kopecks a year for the benefit of the treasury, plus an additional 40-50 kopecks to their landowner, and the state peasants paid 1 ruble 14 kopecks a year only to the treasury. Karamzin N. M. Traditions of the centuries. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - P.133.

For a more accurate record of the country began to conduct a census of the male population every 20 years. Based on the results of the censuses, revision tales (lists) were compiled. During the census, the number of serfs increased, since former bonded serfs, who had previously received freedom after the death of their master, were equated to this category.

In addition, the black-mowed peasants of the northern regions, the plowed peasants of Siberia, the peoples of the middle Volga region, who had not previously paid taxes, because they were not serfs, were taxed. Single palaces were added to them, i.e. former service people (gunners, archers), previously exempt from taxes. The poll tax was now also required to be paid by the townspeople - townspeople, philistines.

Various estates sought all sorts of privileges in order to be exempt from paying taxes. The collection of taxes was always carried out with great difficulty, with huge arrears, since the solvency of the population was very low. So, in 1732, arrears amounted to 15 million rubles, which was twice the amount of income.

The main source of state budget revenue, as already mentioned, was direct taxes from the population - up to 55.5% in 1724. In addition, as in the 17th century, indirect taxes and a system of ransoms for the sale of monopoly goods, as well as ransoms for the construction of mills, bridges, etc., played an important role. Various in-kind duties became widespread, such as recruiting, stationing (apartment) and underwater, in accordance with which the peasants had to provide the military units that stood up with food and fodder grain. State peasants were also obliged to perform various kinds of work in favor of the state: to transport mail and allocate carts for carts, to take part in the construction of canals, harbors, roads. Karamzin N. M. Traditions of the centuries. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - P.134.

A special role in replenishing the revenues of the treasury was played by manipulations with small copper coins. So, for example, the market price of one pood of copper was 7 rubles, but at the beginning of the 18th century copper money was minted from this mass for 12 rubles, and by 1718 - for 40 rubles. The huge difference between the market price of copper and the face value of a copper coin led to their endless illegal fakes - "thieves' money", rising prices and depreciation of money, impoverishment of the population.

The main budget item was military spending. So, for example, the military campaigns of Peter I absorbed approximately 80-85% of all income in Russia, and in 1705 they cost 96%. During the period of Peter's reforms systematically

expenditures on the state apparatus, on the construction of St. Petersburg and the palaces around it, on various ceremonial events on the occasion of military victories - “victory”, magnificent festivities, etc. also state loans, especially after the death of Peter I.

In order to streamline and strictly centralize the financial system in 1719-1721, the highest state bodies were created: the College of Chambers - to manage the country's revenues, the Staff College - to manage expenses, the Revision College - to control financial system generally. All this was done in opposition to the previous system, when each order had its own sources of income. Karamzin N. M. Traditions of the centuries. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - P.135.

5. Military reform Petra 1

One of the most significant transformations of Peter I should be called the military reform, which made it possible to bring the Russian army closer to the European standards of that time.

At the end of the 17th century, Peter I disbanded the streltsy troops not so much because of their military incompetence, but for political reasons, since the streltsy in their mass supported the forces opposed to Peter. As a result, the king was left without an army. The regiments hastily formed in 1699-1700 under the leadership of foreign officers in the battles near Narva showed a complete inability to resist the Swedes. With the help of his comrades-in-arms in the "amusing troops", Peter energetically set about recruiting and training a new army. And already in 1708-1709, she showed herself at the level of the armies of any European country.

First of all, the former principle of the formation of an army by random soldiers from walkers, hunters, dependent people, etc. was canceled. For the first time in Russia, a regular army on the basis of recruitment duty, which was established from 1705. In total, until 1725, 53 recruits were carried out, according to which more than 280 thousand people were mobilized into the army and navy. Initially, one recruit from 20 households was taken into the army, and from 1724 they began to be recruited in accordance with the principles underlying the poll tax. Recruits underwent military training, received uniforms, weapons, while until the 18th century, soldiers - both nobles and peasants - had to come to the service in full gear. Gumilyov L. N. From Russia to Russia. Essays on Russian history. - M.: Logos, 1999. - S.244.

Peter I almost did not use the principle of a mercenary army from among foreigners, which was widespread in Europe. He preferred the national armed forces. Interestingly, the following rule was established regarding recruits: if a recruit was from serfs, he automatically became free, and then his children, born after liberation, also became free.

The Russian field army consisted of infantry, grenadier, cavalry regiments. The emperor paid special attention to two regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, created by Peter in Moscow in his youth, during the struggle for the throne, and later transformed into a palace guard. All nobles had to bear military service from the soldier's rank. So, according to the decree of 1714, it was forbidden to promote to officers those nobles who had not completed military service in the guards regiments, which not all noble children liked. The most capable young nobles were sent to study (especially maritime affairs) abroad.

The training of officers was carried out in military schools founded in 1698-1699 - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). By decree of Peter in the early 1720s, 50 garrison schools were founded to train non-commissioned officers. Timoshina T.M. Economic History of Russia: Textbook / Ed. prof. M.N. Chepurin. -8th ed. Ster. - M.: Legal House "Justitsinform", 2002. - P.80.

Peter I paid special attention to the fleet. At the end of the 17th century, ships were being built in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk. In 1704, the Admiralty and shipyards were founded in St. Petersburg, where the construction of ships of the navy moved. At the Admiralty shipyard, where at the same time

up to 10 thousand people worked, from 1706 to 1725 about 60 large and more than 200 small ships were built for Baltic Fleet. Sailors for the fleet were also recruited by recruitment. By the mid-1720s, the navy consisted of 48 battleships and about 800 galleys and other ships, on which about 28 thousand crew members served. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow, located in the famous Sukharev Tower, where naval officers were trained. Timoshina T.M. Decree. op. - P.81.

Conclusion

It is very difficult to evaluate all the transformations of Peter I. These reforms are of a very contradictory nature, they cannot be given an unambiguous assessment. The most important thing is that for the first time after the baptism of Russia, Peter I made an energetic attempt to bring the country closer to European civilization.

Peter I constantly emphasized that Russia should no longer remain closed to world economic processes if it did not want to continue to lag behind in socio-economic development and gradually fall into heavy colonial dependence on the advanced Western countries, as happened with many Asian states that failed to put an end to traditionalism. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia managed to take its rightful place in the system of European states. It has become a great power with an efficient economy, powerful army and navy, highly developed science and culture.

Carrying out reforms in Russia, Peter strove for an ideal state based on fair and rational laws, but this turned out to be a utopia. In practice, a police state was created in the country without any institutions of social control.

Adopting advanced technologies, scientific, military and other achievements in the West, Peter did not seem to notice the development of the ideas of humanism there, all the more not wanting to introduce them to Russian soil. It was under Peter that the serfdom of the peasants intensified, due to which the tsar's reform activities were mainly carried out, since there were almost no other sources of economic growth in the country. The hardships of the reforms that fell on the shoulders of the peasants and the urban population were more than once the causes of major popular uprisings in Central Russia, the Volga region, Ukraine and the Don, for example, the uprising of the Cossacks led by Kondraty Bulavin in 1707-1708, brutally suppressed by the tsarist authorities .

Listliterature

Gumilyov L.N. From Russia to Russia. Essays on Russian history. - M.: Logos, 1999. - 674 p.

Zuev M.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. Tutorial. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 896s.

Isaev I.A. History of the State and Law of Russia: Proc. for universities on special and direction "Jurisprudence" / Mosk. state legal acad. - M.: Jurist, 1998. - 768s.

Karamzin N.M. Traditions of the Ages. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - 659s.

Kargalov V.V., Saveliev Yu.S., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. - M.: Russian word, 2001. - 577s.

Klyuchevsky V.O. New Russian history. Lecture course. - M., 1888. - 542s.

Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - 745s.

Livshchits A.Ya. Economic reform in Russia and its price. - M.: Prospect, 2001.- 432s.

Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1990. - 304 p.

Platonov S.F. Lectures on Russian history. - M.: graduate School, 2001. - 600s.

Pushkarev SG. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - 642 p.

Smirnov I.I Political history Russia. - M.: Os-89, 1999. - 318s.

Timoshina T.M. Economic History of Russia: Textbook / Ed. Prof. M.N. Chepurin.-8th ed. Ster. - M.: Legal House "Yusticinform", 2002. - 416s.

Reader on the history of the state and law of Russia. / Ed. Chibiryaeva S.A. - M: Bylina, 2000. - 524 p.

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Carrying out the reform of the Russian economy, Peter I makes a lot of efforts for the development of Russian industry. As in other areas of life, Peter saw this work as a state duty, and therefore considered himself entitled to impose it on the population and demand its fulfillment, no matter how hard the work itself was.

To stimulate industrial production, interest-free loans are issued, payment by installments is granted, duty-free or at a reduced tariff is allowed to import the necessary material from abroad. Privileges are granted, and at first even monopolies for production are granted. A high duty is imposed on imported goods to eliminate competition. Consulates are established abroad to protect the trade interests of Russian merchants.

Peter I was especially concerned about the development of mining in Russia and the planting of a large factory industry, and in this area he achieved the greatest success. The Tula arms factory with an extensive arsenal and surrounding settlements of gunsmiths and blacksmiths supplied the large Russian army with weapons. In the Olonets region, on the shores of Lake Onega, in 1703. an iron foundry and ironworks was built, which became the foundation of the city of Petrozavodsk. But mining developed especially widely and successfully in the Urals, rich in ore deposits. The Urals had huge tracts of forest, necessary for obtaining charcoal, on which metal was smelted, fast and full-flowing rivers, which ensured the construction of factory dams. The Urals turned into one of the main centers for the production of weapons, the smelting of copper, which is necessary in shipbuilding and for minting coins. Other centers of metallurgy were Karelia and the Lipetsk region. Although the ores here were poor and metal production was expensive, both of these areas of production were close to the centers of consumption - St. Petersburg and Voronezh. In the XVIII century. the government could already equip the army and navy with weapons from Russian material and Russian manufacture, and iron and copper were even exported abroad.

A feature of the metallurgical industry was that, unlike the capitalist manufacture of the West, it was based on forced labor. The introduction of the poll tax and its extension to new categories of the population, the establishment of a passport system that made it extremely difficult for peasants to leave the countryside, reduced to a minimum the opportunities for the formation of a civilian labor market in the country. Therefore, in order to provide the plants and factories with the required number of workers, the manufacturers and factory owners were allowed to buy villages for the factories, with the limitation, however, that “those villages were always inseparable from those factories”, in other words, without land and without a factory, the peasants could not be sold. This is how the sessional peasants arose.

Most of the metallurgical enterprises were originally built at the expense of the treasury, but later on the share of private capital in the construction of factories increased. During the first decade of the eighteenth century the treasury built 14 metallurgical enterprises, and private individuals only 2. In the next 15 years, 5 factories were built with state funds, and 10 by private industrialists. Some of the state-owned factories were subsequently transferred to private hands on preferential terms. So, for example, the first large metallurgical plant in the Urals - Nevyanovsky - was transferred by Peter I to the factory owner Demidov, on its basis a huge complex of factories grew, producing in the middle of the 18th century. more than a third of the metal smelted in Russia.

At the end of the reign of Peter in Russia there were up to 240 factories and factories. Along with metallurgical plants, there were cloth, linen, paper, silk, carpet, and hair factories; cannon, weapons, gunpowder factories.

However, despite the spread of manufactories, urban craft and peasant crafts retained their paramount importance. A huge mass of rural residents continued to be content with simple household items made in their own households. However, the patriarchal isolation of domestic crafts was gradually broken. Millions of arshins of peasant linen and other products through buyers got not only to the markets of large cities, but also abroad.

All industrial business in Russia was strictly regulated. Peter did not limit himself to general instructions: government guardianship often intruded into the smallest details. The canvas that went abroad was ordered to be made necessarily 1.5 arshins wide, not wider, not narrower; sell hemp, having previously cut off its ends or roots. Craftsmen were ordered to organize themselves into craft workshops. In the early 30s of the XVIII century. in Russia there were up to 15 thousand guild artisans, of which more than half (8.5 thousand) were in Moscow.

The rapid development of the manufacturing industry in Russia at that time was largely ensured by the protectionist policy of the Russian government. In order to protect Russian manufactory from the competition of foreign goods, it was in 1724. adopted the Customs Charter, which established high duties on goods imported from abroad, which were also produced by Russian manufactories, and vice versa, exempted the import of necessary raw materials from duties. In addition, the government provided the owners of manufactories with a number of benefits: freed them from permanent conscription and state services, subordinated them directly to colleges, reduced interference in their affairs by the local administration, and most importantly, granted them the right to exploit the forced labor of peasants at their enterprises.

The growth of manufactories, small commodity production, its specialization in certain regions of the country contributed to the expansion of domestic trade. Fairs of all-Russian importance continued to play an important role in internal exchange - Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, Arkhangelsk and others. Goods from all over the country were brought to these centers.

The construction of canals contributed to the expansion of domestic trade: in 1703. construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal began, connecting the Volga basin with the Baltic Sea. The cheap water route opened up wide opportunities for the delivery of goods to St. Petersburg and from there abroad. Around the turbulent Lake Ladoga, the construction of a bypass canal began, which was completed already in the second quarter of the 18th century.

The center of foreign trade moved from the White Sea to the Baltic. So, in 1725. more than 900 foreign ships arrived in St. Petersburg. Other Baltic ports also actively participated in foreign trade: Vyborg, Riga, Narva, Revel (Tallinn), and only about 5% of Russia's foreign trade turnover remained on the share of Arkhangelsk.

Russia exported both traditional goods - flax, hemp, resin, wood, leather, canvas, and new ones - linen and iron.

In imports, expensive cloth, silk fabrics, grape wines, coffee, spices, confectionery, porcelain, crystal and other luxury items occupied a prominent place. What was new was the expansion of the import of raw materials for the developing industry. In particular, dyes for textile manufactories were imported.

Russia has succeeded in its mercantilist policy by increasing its trade surplus. Export of goods through St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk and Riga in 1726. amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and import - 2.1 million. This was largely facilitated by the customs tariff imbued with protectionist principles. Moreover, duties from foreigners were levied by Efimkas, i.e. in foreign currency, accepted at a reduced rate. This doubled the amount of the duty and helped attract precious metals to the country.

3 Peter's "revolution" in the field of culture

and life. The problem of civilizational split

in the Petrine era and its influence

on the historical fate Russia

The foundation of manufactories, the construction of canals, the creation of the navy required the training of specialists in various fields of science and technology. For the regular army and navy and the new bureaucratic institutions, trained officers and officials were needed. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not meet the country's new needs for educated people.

In Russia, the secular school was created in two forms: in the form of primary "digital" schools (of which there were about 50 by the end of the reign of Peter I) and in the form of a number of special educational institutions. These were the navigation school in Moscow and the maritime academy in St. Petersburg, engineering school in Moscow and artillery in St. Petersburg, several "mathematical schools", a medical school at the Moscow military hospital.

Educational literature was produced for schools - primers, manuals on mathematics and mechanics, manuals on military engineering. Navigation school teacher L. Magnitsky in 1703. published the famous "Arithmetic", which taught more than one generation of Russian people.

However, the Petrine school did not produce lasting results. Many digital schools existed only on paper and later gradually closed completely. The nobility avoided these schools, and the merchant class directly petitioned for permission not to send their children there at all, referring to the damage to commercial affairs. The percentage of those who avoid attending digital schools has always been significant. Turned out to be more vital primary schools at the bishop's houses, which were run by the clergy. They survived even after the death of Peter I.

Under Peter, the printing of secular books on a large scale began, ranging from alphabets, textbooks and calendars to historical writings and political treatises. From January 1703 in Moscow, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti about military and other affairs worthy of knowledge and memory, that happened in the Moscow state and in other surrounding countries, began to appear.

The introduction of printed literature in 1710 contributed to the spread of printed literature. a new civil font, more simplified compared to the complex style of the old Church Slavonic letters. The works of Western European scientists began to be systematically translated into Russian. It was a process of enriching the country with the achievements of foreign science and technology.

The Kunstkamera, created by Peter I, laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial items and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, letters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

An important milestone in Peter's transformations in the field of culture was the "great embassy". Having glimpsed Western culture in passing, Peter I came to the conclusion, dangerous for the national Russian culture, that it was lagging far behind Western culture. And that is why Peter I is making gigantic efforts and violence in order to push Russia into Western civilization.

First of all, Peter I tried to change the national traditions and everyday habits that had developed in the country. The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were forbidden and replaced with new ones. It was prescribed to wear camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs. It was forbidden to wear beards. Sellers of long dresses and boots and those who wore beards were threatened with exile to hard labor and confiscation of property. The king cut his beards with his own hands and cut off long caftans. He left long beards only to priests and peasants, the rest paid huge duties for wearing a beard. Citizens were also required to drink tea and coffee, smoke tobacco.

In 1718 Peter I introduced assemblies in St. Petersburg - solemn receptions of guests in noble houses. They were supposed to appear with their wives and daughters. The assemblies were schools of secular education where the youth were to be educated good manners, rules of conduct in society, communication. The code of conduct of the young generation was “An honest mirror of youth, or an indication for everyday behavior”, compiled by an unknown author, which set out the rules for the behavior of young people in the family, at a party, in public places, in the service. The establishment of assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", the use of foreign, mainly French. Thanks to the efforts of Peter I himself, many assemblies turned into drunkenness, and often the participants in the assemblies, both men and women, are forcibly introduced to drunkenness.

Changes in everyday life and culture that occurred in the first quarter of the XVIII century. were of progressive importance, but they mainly affected high society. They further emphasized the allocation of the nobility to the privileged class, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges. Among the nobility, a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture is being established. Two subcultures are being formed in Russian society: the culture of the “people” and the culture of “society”. So, within the framework of a single religion and statehood, there are two civilizationally different cultures. Berdyaev N.A. wrote: “Russian people of that time lived on different floors and even in different centuries ... There was almost nothing in common between the upper and lower floors of Russian culture, a complete split. They lived on different planets.

Publications, 11:00 08/06/2019

© Boris Mikhailovich Kustodiev. Merchant. 1920

Merchants under Peter I: privileges, subsidies and regulation with corruption

The transformation of Russia into an absolutist state changed the class composition of the population. The number of representatives of trade professions increased especially noticeably. Merchants became for the king the most important source of development of the country, but this only led to the restriction of their rights and opportunities.

Alexander Minzhurenko, Candidate of Historical Sciences, deputy of the State Duma of the first convocation, tells about the consequences of numerous reforms of Peter I for the merchant class in the sixth episode of his investigation.

Russia's transition to the stage of absolutism introduced significant changes in the legal status of all social strata of Russian society without exception. The radical reforms of Peter I affected various spheres of life. The rights of the merchants were also seriously revised.

On the one hand, Peter I supported the merchants as the creators of the country's new economy, provided them with great help and assistance, protecting and expanding their rights and privileges. But on the other hand, this reformer thought first of all about the expansion and strengthening of the state. And to create an absolutist state, a colossal bureaucratic machine with a large number of officials and a constant large regular army and navy were required.

The formation and maintenance of two new pillars of the absolute monarchy required gigantic funds in volumes that the treasury of previous periods could not even dream of. And everyone paid for the creation of this new state: the peasants, who received a burdensome soul tax with a mass of new taxes, and the clergy, who, according to the priests, were simply “robbed” by the Antichrist Tsar, and the aristocracy, and the wealthy merchants.

However, the “robbery” of the merchants was carried out by Peter I prudently and with the understanding that merchants are a chicken that regularly lays golden eggs. And therefore, she had to help in every possible way in this process of continuous reproduction of money. And Peter I, with all his indefatigable energy and scope, begins not only to support the merchants in their pursuits, but also very persistently pushes them to new types of activity. Forced from merchants with the assistance of the state, a class of industrialists-entrepreneurs is formed.

Actually, even before Peter the Great, merchants were engaged not only in purely trade. Quite often they founded crafts and manufactories. It is known how merchants rose in the extraction of salt, ores and other minerals. They were also engaged in the processing of raw materials. Trade for many future industrialists was a stage of initial accumulation of capital. And it was natural.

So, in many cases, Peter did not wait for that very, in his opinion, slow accumulation of start-up capital, but began to allocate it to merchants almost by force, literally forcing them to engage in a new business. Subsidies and privileges fell on the merchant-industrialists as if from a cornucopia. Peter urgently needed to create a trade and Navy, for which copper, a sailcloth and much more were needed.

The acute need for money forced Peter I to use internal trade as the most important source of state revenue. Trade was subject to various new taxes, which could not but restrain its turnover.

In addition, wanting to extract the maximum profit for the treasury from trade, Peter I declared the sale of part of the goods on the domestic market a state monopoly. This category included salt, tobacco and other goods, the trade in which was often farmed out to individual merchants, monasteries, or carried out directly by state institutions.

The Petrine era is known primarily for the desire of the state to regulate economic, social and even private life. The royal decree of January 16, 1721 also determined the legal status of the merchant class. By this document, the entire urban population, with the exception of foreigners, nobles, clergy and "mean people" was divided into two guilds. The corporations of the guests, the trading people of the living room and the cloth hundreds were liquidated.

The first guild included large merchants, bankers, skippers of merchant ships. The second guild included the middle merchants, merchants of petty goods and "food supplies", as well as artisans.

But this decree not only drew new social and legal boundaries between persons of different levels of wealth: it seriously affected the interests of the merchants, in fact, infringing on their exclusive rights to engage in trade. The decree eliminated the monopoly of the merchants on trade, which they had enjoyed since the time of the Council Code of 1649. Trade was now allowed to be carried out by persons of "every rank", with the exception of the military.

Competitors merchants spawned and Peter's Decree on the same heritage of 1714. The tsar was worried about the fragmentation of landlord estates during the change of generations and forbade them to be divided among his sons. From now on, all land ownership upon the death of the owner could only go entirely to the eldest of the brothers. The younger sons of noble families were directly recommended to engage in trading activities.

Of course, various subsidies and direct state financing of trade and entrepreneurship contributed to the revival and growth of the economy as a whole. But such an active direct intervention of the state into the economic life of the country with the infusion of huge amounts of state money into it inevitably led to an unprecedented increase in corruption, nepotism and embezzlement.

The rules of free fair competition were often violated, and many respectable merchants who were not included in government programs could not compete with trading establishments that were patronized by the government. And many of the highest government officials themselves rushed into trade and production, hastily creating enterprises with state money.

So, Prince Alexander Menshikov built a sailing factory on Klyazma, and other closest associates of Peter I (Apraksin, Tolstoy, Shafirov) established a silk company. She received huge subsidies from the state and the right to sell her goods duty-free for 50 years, as well as freedom from taxes, standing and other privileges.

The protectionist tariff of 1724 also hit the interests and rights of many Russian merchants. This was done in order to create favorable conditions for the emergence and development of new domestic industries - manufacturing enterprises.

Protecting such industries, the government set extremely high and even prohibitive duties on the import of such foreign goods. If the usual import duties amounted to 10-20%, reaching up to 30-40%, then protective duties increased to 50-75% of the value of the imported goods. This affected the interests of those Russian merchants who mainly traded in these groups of goods. And they complained about the infringement of their interests and rights, that they were placed in unequal conditions with other merchants.

At the same time, Peter I created the most favorable conditions for merchants involved in the export of Russian products and products. In most cases, goods exported from the country were subject to a low (up to 3%) duty. And if Russian merchants exported goods on their own ships, the duty was reduced by a factor of three.

Frankly copying the Western European experience, Peter began to cobble together various companies from scattered entrepreneurs (“in the manner of the East Indian.”) These companies were financed by the treasury and were under strict control of the state. Trading companies did not take root in Russia during the reign of Peter I. Merchants preferred to trade separately from each other, through their clerks.

Thus, the period of Peter the Great's reforms was accompanied by a kind of "nationalization" of trading activity and its strict regulation. The king sought to subordinate everything in the country to the interests of the state. From here, many merchants experienced both the patronage of the government and many of the restrictions imposed by it.

However, not all spheres of trade fell into the field of view of Peter I, so medium and small merchants freely traded in traditional goods. For them, the regulation of trading activities by the state was expressed in most cases in the bribery of civil servants. Large merchants also suffered from corruption, and on a large scale.

Peter himself, knowing about the widespread vice and the massive violation of the rights of merchants, resolutely fought against this evil, but he failed to create an effective system for protecting the rights of the merchants.