(evolutionism, diffusionism, functionalism, structuralism,

cultural relativism, neo-evolutionism).

Cultural anthropology studies the processes of formation of human culture as the main essence of man, the features of ethnic cultures that determine the essence and behavior of a person.
Cultural anthropology is based on a culturally specific approach, i.e., cultural anthropologists seek to study the culture of a people, as it were, from the inside, in field conditions, to understand its specificity without comparison with other cultures, while using units of analysis and terms specific to this culture, describing any elements of the culture, whether it be dwellings or ways of raising children, from the point of view of a participant or culture bearer.

Theories of cultural anthropology have gone through a long historical path of their development: evolutionism, diffusionism, sociological school, functionalism, historical ethnology, ethnopsychological school, structuralism, neoevolutionism in the study of the culture of peoples.

Evolutionism. The supporters of evolutionism saw the main task in the discovery and substantiation of the general patterns of development of human culture, in compiling the series of development of cultures of different peoples. The ideas of evolutionism found their adherents in various countries, the most prominent representatives of evolutionism were: in England - Herbert Spencer, Edward Tylor, James Fraser, in Germany - Adolf Bastian, Theodor Weitz, Heinrich Schurz, in France - Charles Letourneau, in the USA - Lewis Henry Morgan.

The founder of the evolutionary school is deservedly considered the outstanding English scientist Edward Tylor (1832-1917), who outlined his evolutionary ideas, in particular, the idea of ​​the progressive progressive development of human culture from the primitive state to modern civilization; the idea that the existing differences between peoples are not due to racial differences, but are only different stages in the development of the cultures of peoples; the idea of ​​continuity and interrelation of cultures of different peoples. In his reasoning, he was based on one of the main postulates of evolutionism: man is a part of nature and develops in accordance with its general laws. Therefore, all people are the same in their psychological and intellectual inclinations, they have the same features of culture, and their development proceeds in a similar way, since it is determined by similar reasons. Tylor understood the variety of forms of culture as "stages of gradual development, each of which was a product of the past and in turn played a certain role in shaping the future." These successive stages of development united in one continuous series all peoples and all cultures of mankind - from the most backward to the most civilized. L. Morgan considered three important problems: the place and role of the tribal system in the history of mankind, the history of the formation of family and marriage relations and the periodization of the history of mankind. The entire history of mankind can be divided, Morgan believed, into two large periods: the first, early - a social organization based on clans, phratries and tribes; the second, late period is a political organization based on territory and property. Morgan proposed to divide the history of mankind into three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization, and the first two stages, in turn, on the steps (lower, middle and highest), noting specific specific features for each step. It was the first universal system of periodization of world history.

The evolutionary school gave the first, rather harmonious, concept of the development of man and his culture and proceeded from the recognition of the idea of ​​progress in social development. The main ideas of evolutionism were as follows:

In nature, there is a unity of the human race, so all people have approximately the same mental abilities and in the same situations will make approximately similar decisions; this circumstance determines the unity and uniformity of the development of human culture in any part of the world, and the presence or absence of contacts between different cultures is of no decisive importance;

In human society, there is continuous progress, that is, the process of transition from a simple state to a more complex one; culture, as a part of society, also always develops from the lowest to the highest through continuous, gradual changes, quantitative increase or decrease in the elements of culture;

The development of any element of culture is initially predetermined, since its later forms are born and formed in earlier forms, while the development of culture is multi-stage and occurs in accordance with the stages and steps common to all cultures in the world;
in accordance with the universal laws of human cultures, the same stages of development of different peoples and their cultures give the same results, and all peoples, in the end, according to the same laws of development, must reach the height of European culture (even without contacts and borrowing the achievements of European culture).

Diffusionism. The very concept of "diffusion" (from Latin diffusio - distribution) was borrowed from physics, where it means "spreading", "penetration", and in cultural anthropology, diffusion began to be understood as the spread of cultural phenomena through contacts between peoples - trade, resettlement, conquest. Diffusionism as a scientific direction assumed the recognition of the main content of the historical process as diffusion, contact, borrowing, transfer and interaction of cultures. Diffusionists countered the evolutionist idea of ​​the autonomous emergence and development of similar cultures under similar conditions with the idea of ​​the uniqueness of the emergence of cultural elements in certain geographical regions and their subsequent distribution from the center of origin.
The founder of diffusionism is considered to be Friedrich Ratzel, who was the first to draw attention to the patterns of distribution of cultural phenomena across countries and zones. Ratzel was one of the first to raise the issue of cultural phenomena as signs of a connection between peoples: races mix, languages ​​change and disappear, the very name of peoples changes, and only cultural objects retain their form and area of ​​being. Therefore, the most important task of cultural anthropology is to study the distribution of cultural objects.
The differences between the cultures of peoples caused by natural conditions, Ratzel argued, are gradually smoothed out due to the spatial movements of ethnographic objects through the cultural contacts of peoples. Ratzel examined in detail the various forms of interaction between peoples: migration of tribes, conquests, mixing of racial types, exchange, trade, etc. It is in the process of these interactions that the spatial spread of cultures occurs. In practice, this is expressed in the form of the spread of ethnographic objects, the role of which is much more important than languages ​​or racial characteristics. Objects of material culture retain their form and area of ​​distribution much longer than other cultural phenomena. Peoples, according to Ratzel, change, perish, but the object remains what it was, and for this reason, the study of the geographical distribution of ethnographic objects is the most important in the study of cultures.
Ratzel identified two ways to move elements of cultures:
1) complete and rapid transfer of not individual objects, but the entire cultural complex; he called this method acculturation; 2) the movement of individual ethnographic objects from one nation to another. At the same time, he noted that some items (jewelry, clothes, drugs) are easily transferred from people to people, while others (harness, metal products) are moved only together with their carriers. The recognized head of diffusionism in the German-speaking countries was Fritz Gröbner, who created the theory of cultural circles, which is an attempt at a global reconstruction of the entire primitive history. He managed to unite the cultural achievements of the peoples of the entire Earth at the Pre-State stage of development into six cultural circles (or cultures). Among the latter, Gröbner attributed the phenomena of material and spiritual culture, as well as social life.
Gröbner concluded that there is no repetition in the history of mankind and its culture, and therefore there are no patterns. All phenomena in culture are strictly individual. English scientist William Rivers believed that the formation of new cultures occurred through the interaction of cultures of large groups of immigrants. This means that the emergence of new cultures is possible through mixing, not evolution. At the same time, due to the interaction and mixing of several cultures, a new phenomenon may arise that has not previously been encountered in any of the interacting cultures. Here Rivers put forward the thesis that even a small number of aliens, possessing higher technology, can introduce their customs into the environment of the local population.

American cultural anthropologists have come to believe that diffusion is the main factor that causes similarities in the cultures of different peoples.

Diffusionism (Ratzel, Frobenius, Gröbner, Rivers, Wissler) shows that each culture, like a living organism, is born in certain geographical conditions, has its own center of origin, and each element of culture occurs only once and then spreads through transfers, borrowing, displacement material and spiritual elements of culture from one nation to another. Each culture has its own center of origin and distribution; finding these centers is the main task of cultural anthropology. The method of studying cultures is the study of cultural circles, or areas of distribution, of elements of culture.

Sociological school and functionalism. The sociological school (Durkheim, Levy-Bruhl) shows:

In every society there is a culture as a complex of collective ideas that ensure the stability of society;

The function of culture is to solidify society, to bring people together;

Every society has its own morality, it is dynamic and changeable;

The transition from one society to another is a difficult process and is not carried out smoothly, but in jerks.

The logical continuation and development of the ideas of the sociological school was functionalism. The origin of functionalism occurred in England, where it became the dominant trend since the 1920s. 20th century The largest representative British School of Social Anthropology became Bronislav Malinovsky(1884-1942). A distinctive feature of the functional approach in the study of ethnic processes is the consideration of culture as a holistic formation, consisting of interrelated elements, parts, as a result of which the decomposition of culture into its constituent parts and the identification of the relationship between them has become the most important method of functionalism. Wherein each element of culture was studied as performing a specific task, function in the sociocultural community of people. This is really important, since often any individual element plays not just its inherent role, but represents a link without which culture cannot exist as an integral entity. For supporters of functionalism, it is important to understand how culture operates, what tasks it solves, how it is reproduced.
Culture, in his opinion, is a product of the biological properties of a person, since a person is an animal that must satisfy his biological needs, for which he gets food, fuel, builds housing, makes clothes, etc. In this way, he transforms his environment and creates a derivative environment, which is culture. Differences between cultures are due to differences in the ways in which elementary human needs are met. In accordance with this methodological justification, culture is a material and spiritual system through which a person ensures his existence and solves the tasks facing him. In addition to basic needs, Malinovsky singled out derivative needs generated by the cultural environment, and not by nature. The means of satisfying both basic and derived needs is a kind of organization that consists of units called Malinov institutes. An institution as a primary organizational unit is a set of means and methods for satisfying a particular need, basic or derivative. Considering, thus, culture as a system of stable equilibrium, where each part of the whole performs its function, Malinovsky at the same time did not deny the changes taking place in it and the borrowing of some elements from another culture. However, if any element of culture is destroyed in the course of these changes (for example, a harmful ritual is banned), then the entire ethno-cultural system, and hence the people, may perish. Malinovsky argued that in culture there can be nothing superfluous, accidental, everything that exists in culture must have some function - otherwise it would be thrown out, forgotten. If a custom is consistently reproduced, it means that it is needed for some reason. We consider it harmful and meaningless only because we do not know exactly how it is related to basic needs, or we evaluate it without connection with other cultural phenomena. Even the undoubtedly harmful, barbaric customs of the local peoples cannot be destroyed just like that. First you need to find out all the functions that they perform, and choose a complete replacement for them.

One of the largest representatives of functionalism is Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955). He showed that science ethnology acting historical method, studies specific facts concerning the past and present of individual peoples, while social anthropology seeks and explores the general laws of the development of mankind and its culture. The main method of ethnology is the historical reconstruction of human culture based on direct evidence from written sources.

Fundamentals of functionalism:

Any social system consists of "structures" and "actions". "Structures" are stable patterns through which individuals carry out relationships between themselves and the environment, and their function is to contribute to the maintenance of the social solidarity of the system;

culture serves the needs of the individual and, above all, his three basic needs: basic (in food, housing, clothing, etc.), derivative (in the division of labor, protection, social control) and integrative (in psychological security, social harmony, laws, religion, art, etc.). Each aspect of culture has a function within one of the types of needs listed above;

The key role in culture belongs to customs, rituals, moral norms, which are the regulators of people's behavior. In fulfilling this function, they become cultural mechanisms for meeting the vital needs of people and their coexistence;

The task of cultural anthropology is to study the functions of cultural phenomena, their relationship and interdependence within each individual culture, without its relationship with other cultures.

Structuralism. In English social anthropology, Edward Evans-Pritchard gained great fame. He proceeded from the belief that the elements of the system mutually influence each other, and the structural approach studies the connections between these elements. In his opinion, social and cultural systems constitute a single whole, since they are created by man and meet his needs in orderly relations with the outside world. Evans-Pritchard came to the conclusion that any relationship between people is a kind of structure, and taken all together, these structures constitute a certain hierarchy among themselves - a social system.
K. Levi-Strauss considered the discovery of such logical patterns that underlay all social and cultural phenomena as the main goal of the structural analysis he developed. All social and cultural achievements are based on similar structural principles.
The main ideas of structuralism (Evans-Pritchard, K. Levi-Strauss):

Consideration of culture as a set of sign systems (language, science, art, fashion, religion, etc.);

Search for universal principles and methods of cultural organization of the human experience of existence, joint life and activity, understood as the construction of sign and symbolic systems;

The assumption of the existence of universal cultural organizing universals in all spheres of human activity;

Affirmation of the primacy of mental principles in the process of creating sustainable symbols of culture; different kinds and types of culture cannot be ordered from the point of view of a single scale of development. They represent variations of mental principles on a heterogeneous initial "natural material";

The dynamics of culture is due to the constant transformation of external and internal incentives for cultural activity; sorting them in order of importance; transformation into internal mental principles; comparison with other symbolic forms leading to the confirmation or change of existing cultural orders.

Cultural relativism. In cultural anthropology, there are two tendencies that "argue" among themselves: this is the trend of cultural relativism and the trend of universalism. The trend of cultural relativism is manifested in emphasizing the differences between the cultures of different peoples, differences in the perception, thinking, worldview of peoples. All cultures are seen as equal in importance, but qualitatively different.
One of the founders of the school of cultural relativism is the prominent American scientist Melville Herskovitz. Herskovitz understood the history of mankind as the sum of independently developing cultures and civilizations, seeing the source of the dynamics of cultures in their unity and variability.
Herskovitz separated the concept of "culture" from the concept of "society".
One of the main concepts of Herskovitz is "enculturation", by which he understood the entry of an individual into a specific form of culture. Main content enculturation consists in the assimilation of the features of thinking and actions, patterns of behavior that make up culture. Enculturation must be distinguished from socialization - the development in childhood of a universal way of life. In reality, these processes coexist, develop simultaneously and are realized in a concrete historical form. The peculiarity of the inculturation process is that, starting in childhood with the acquisition of skills in eating, speech, behavior, etc., it continues in the form of improving skills in adulthood. Therefore, in the process of inculturation, Herskovits singled out two levels - childhood and maturity, revealing with their help the mechanism of changes in culture through a harmonious combination of stability and variability. The main task for a person at the first level is to assimilate cultural norms, etiquette, traditions, religion, that is, to master the previous cultural experience. The first level of inculturation is a mechanism that ensures the stability of culture. The main feature of the second level of inculturation is that a person has the opportunity not to accept or deny any cultural phenomena, therefore, to make appropriate changes to the culture.

Provisions of cultural relativism (M. Herskovitz):

All cultures have an equal right to exist, regardless of their level of development;

The values ​​of each culture are relative and reveal themselves only within the framework and boundaries of this culture;

European culture is only one of the ways of cultural development. Other cultures are unique and distinctive because of their own development paths;

Each culture is characterized by different ethno-cultural stereotypes of behavior, which form the basis of the system of values ​​of this culture.

Neoevolutionism. The ideas of neo-evolutionism have become especially widespread in the United States and are most fully developed in the works of the prominent American culturologist Leslie Alvin White (1900-1972). Culture, according to White, is an independent system whose function and purpose is to make life safe and fit for mankind. Culture has its own life, is governed by its own principles and laws. For centuries, it surrounds individuals from birth and turns them into people, shaping their beliefs, behaviors, feelings and attitudes.
However, according to White, energy is the measure and source of any development process. All living organisms transform the free energy of the Cosmos into its other types, which support their own life processes of organisms. Just as plants take in energy from the sun to grow, reproduce, and sustain life, so do humans need to take in energy to live. This fully applies to culture: any cultural behavior requires energy consumption. At the same time, the determining factor and criterion for the development of a culture is its energy saturation. Cultures differ in the amount of energy they use, and cultural progress can be measured by the amount of energy used per capita each year. In the most primitive cultures, only the energy of human physical efforts is used, while in more developed cultures, the energy of wind, steam, and atom is used. Thus, White associated the evolution of cultures with an increase in the amount of energy used and saw the meaning of all cultural evolution in improving human adaptation to the world.

A significant place in White's concept is occupied by the theory of symbols. He defined culture as an extrasomatic (out-of-body) tradition, in which symbols play a leading role. He considered symbolic behavior to be one of the most important features of culture, since the ability to use symbols is the main feature of a person. White viewed the symbol as an idea formulated in words that makes possible the spread and continuation of human experience.

Another direction in the development of neoevolutionism is associated with the theory of multilinear evolution by Julian Steward. Societies located in similar natural conditions and at approximately the same level of technological development evolve in a similar way. Steward was convinced that different types of environment require different forms of adaptation to them, so cultures develop in different directions. In this regard, many types of cultural evolution and many of its factors should be considered. To understand the processes of cultural change, Steward introduced the concept of "cultural ecology", which means the process of adaptation and the relationship of culture with the environment. Steward contrasts this concept with the concepts of "human ecology" and "social ecology", which, in his opinion, simply express the biological adaptation of man to the environment.

The neoevolutionary direction (L. White, D. Steward) has developed a fundamentally new approach to the study of culture:

Culture is the result of a society's adaptation to its environment;

Cultural adaptation is a continuous process, since no culture has perfectly adapted to nature in order to become static;

The basis of any culture is its core, which is determined by the characteristics of the natural environment in which cultural adaptation takes place;

The core of any "cultural type" includes social, political and religious institutions that interact closely with the production of livelihoods;

The cultural environment is an indispensable condition for the implementation of the spiritual life of a person, his attachment to his native places and following the precepts of his ancestors.

The origins of the anthropological direction are in the works of physiologists, physicians and psychiatrists of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. For example, the French phrenologist F. I. Gall (1825) argued that the behavior of criminals "depends on the nature of these individuals and on the conditions in which they are." Among the criminals, he singled out natural-born lawbreakers.

Nevertheless, the Italian psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso, who wrote the book The Criminal Man in 1876, is considered the founder of the anthropological school in criminology. The criminal is an atavistic being, he argued, who reproduces in his instincts the primitive man and the lower animals.

Lombroso's theory is characterized by three main theses:

1. there are born criminals, i.e. people who are doomed from birth to sooner or later take the path of crime;
2. human crime is inherited;
3. criminals are different from other people not only according to the internal, mental properties of the personality, but also according to external, physical data by which they can be recognized in the mass of the population.

More restrained opinions were expressed by natural scientists, psychiatrists and lawyers of that time. The very first checks of C. Lombroso's thesis about the physical signs of criminals did not receive the slightest confirmation. In 1913, the English criminologist S. Goring compared the physical data of prisoners in English prisons with students of Cambridge (1 thousand people), Oxford and Aberdeen (969 people), as well as with military personnel and college teachers (118 people). It turned out that there are no physical differences between them. A similar study with the same results was carried out in 1915 by the American V. Hill.

It should be noted that over time, C. Lombroso himself somewhat softened his theory:

• he admitted that in addition to "born" criminals, there are "criminals of passion", random criminals, as well as the mentally ill;
• in his next book “Crime”, published in Russian translation in 1900 (republished in 1994), he agreed that “every crime has many causes in its origin”, among which he included not only personality traits of the offender (including heredity), but also meteorological, climatic, economic, professional and other factors.

In Russia, the views of C. Lombroso were supported with reservations by D. Dril, N. Neklyudov, psychiatrists V. Chizh, P. Tarnovskaya.

Assessing the role of Lombroso in the development of criminological science, the French scientist J. Van-Kan wrote: “The merit of Lombroso was that he awakened thought in the field of criminology, created systems and invented bold and witty hypotheses, but he had to leave subtle analysis and witty conclusions to his students."

Modern views

In the XX century. scientists no longer returned to the thesis about the physical differences between criminals and other people. But the ideas of the born criminal and the inheritance of his properties continued to attract their attention.

In numerous domestic and foreign textbooks and monographs on the problems of psychology and genetics of behavior, one can find the results of the latest research, reflecting the most complex relationships between genetic and environmental characteristics of a person, which allow one to get closer to unraveling the main mystery of criminology.

Behavioral geneticists generally conclude that a person is a product of the combined impact of both biological and social factors, generally directed by the genetic underlying. At the same time, scientists conducting research in the field of behavioral genetics argue that many developmental factors that were previously considered products of the environment may be derivatives of genetics, but the specific environment limits the range that can be caused by a specific genotype. As the American psychologist David Shaffer writes, “Behavior is 100% hereditary and 100% environmental, since these two sets of factors seem to be inextricably linked with each other.”

According to another American psychologist, David Myers, from the moment of conception to adulthood, we are the product of the violent interaction of our genetic predisposition with the environment. "Our genes influence life experience that shape our personalities. It is not necessary to oppose nature and nurture, just as one cannot oppose the length and width of a football field in order to calculate its area.

Educational edition
Belik A.A. At 43 - Culturology. Anthropological theories of cultures. Moscow: Russian state. humanit. un-t. M., 1999. 241 s

BBK71.1 B 43 Educational literature in the humanities and social disciplines for higher education and secondary specialized educational institutions is prepared and published with the assistance of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) under the program “ Higher education". The views and approaches of the author do not necessarily coincide with the position of the program. In particularly controversial cases, an alternative point of view is reflected in the prefaces and afterwords.
Editorial Board: V.I.Bakhmin, Ya.M.Berger, E.Yu.Genieva, G.G.Diligensky, V.D.Shadrikov.
ISBN 5-7281-0214-X © Belik A.A., 1999 © Russian State University for the Humanities, design, 1999

Foreword

Section 1. Basic concepts. The subject of cultural studies

Introduction

Evolutionism

Diffusionism

biologism

Psychologism

psychoanalysis

Functionalism

Section 2. Holistic cultural and anthropological concepts of the middle of the 20th century

White's theory

Anthropology of Kroeber

Anthropology Herskovitz

Section 3. Interaction of culture and personality. Features of the functioning and reproduction of cultures.

Direction "culture-and-personality"

Childhood as a cultural phenomenon

Thinking and culture

ethnoscience

Ecstatic states of consciousness

Interaction of culture, personality and nature

Ethnopsychological study of cultures

Section 4. Theories of cultures of psychological and anthropological orientation in the 70-80s of the XX century

Classical psychoanalysis

Culturology Fromm

Maslow's humanistic psychology

Ethological approach to the study of cultures

Culturology and problems of future global development

Glossary of concepts and terms

FOREWORD

This textbook was created on the basis of a cultural studies course delivered by the author at the Faculty of Management, as well as at the psychological and economic faculties of the Russian State University for the Humanities. The book uses the scientific developments of the author concerning various aspects of the study of cultures in cultural, social, psychological anthropology.

The introduction analyzes theoretical problems, such as the definition of the concept of "culture", its relationship with concrete historical reality, characterizes the two most important types of cultures: modern and traditional. The qualitative originality of culture is shown through a special type of activity (social), inherent only in communities of people. The first section examines various theories of cultures, approaches to the study of phenomena, elements of culture (evolutionism, diffusionism, biologism, psychoanalysis, psychological direction, functionalism), which arose in the 19th - mid-20th centuries. The author tried to show as wide as possible the range of different options for the study of cultures, to present a panorama of views, points of view on the essence of cultural studies. This section is closely adjacent to the second section, which tells about the integral concepts of culture (A. Kroeber, L. White, M. Herskovitz), reflecting the trends of the cultural and anthropological tradition.

The third section is devoted to the study of the interaction of culture and personality. This is new for such courses, but the author believes that such research should become an integral part of cultural studies. This section includes the study of how a person thinks, cognizes the world, acts and feels in different cultures. An essential role in the analysis of these processes is assigned to childhood as a special phenomenon of culture. The question of the types of thinking in societies with different levels of technological development is posed in a new way. The emotional side of cultures is also reflected, its Dionysian feature is viewed through altered states of consciousness, ecstatic rituals. The ethnopsychological study of cultures has also become a subject of careful analysis.

The last section examines theories of cultures that became widespread in the 1970s and 1980s. They opened new horizons in the development of cultural studies, updated methods, and expanded the subject of research. Various approaches to the study of cultures studied in this course serve another purpose: to show the diversity (pluralism) of points of view, concepts that contribute to the education of one's own view of the historical and cultural process.

The author did not set himself the goal, and could not, due to the limited volume, consider all types of theories of cultures. These or those theories of cultures are considered depending on a number of circumstances, and above all on the structure of the course, which contains the problems of cultural studies (culture and thinking, personality, nature and culture, etc.) as the most important part. I would like to emphasize that the main objective of the course is to show the interaction of the individual in culture, to draw students' attention to the fact that behind the various "faces of culture" there is a person with his abilities, needs, goals, due to which cultural studies acquire a humanistic orientation. It is in connection with the expression of the personal principle that the last section examines theories of cultures of a psychological-anthropological orientation.

To some extent, it is precisely this circumstance that explains the absence of theories of Russian cultural researchers, since they place the main emphasis on the ethnographic study of peoples. The concept of "culture" plays a less significant role for them, and they almost do not explore the interaction of culture and personality. In addition, the author follows the tradition that has developed in our country - to consider the concepts of domestic culturologists as a separate subject of research*.

* See: Tokarev S.A. History of Russian ethnography. M., 1966; Zalkind N.G. Moscow School of Anthropologists in the Development of Russian Human Science. M., 1974.

It should be noted that an essential addition to this course is the anthology of cultural studies: cultural and social anthropology (Moscow, 1998).

The author is grateful to the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) for supporting this project, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences S.A. Arutyunov and Doctor of Historical Sciences V.I. Kozlov for good advice and support in scientific research included in this textbook, Doctor of Historical Sciences V.N. Basilov - for active assistance in creating a draft textbook. Separately, the author would like to thank Doctor of Historical Sciences E.G. Aleksandrenkov for his help in writing the chapter "Diffusionism". The author is especially grateful to Professor of the Department of History and Theory of Culture of the Russian State Humanitarian University G.I. Zvereva, whose sensitive and attentive attitude made it possible to create training course- cultural studies.

In addition, the author thanks the editorial board of the journal "Ethos" (USA), Professor E. Bourguignon (USA) and Professor I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt (Germany) for providing literature that is not available in Russian libraries. In assessing a number of areas in the study of cultures, the author relied on the work of the classic of Russian ethnology S.A. Tokarev.

Section 1 . Basic concepts. Cultural subject.

INTRODUCTION

1. The idea of ​​the object of study of cultural studies and the sciences of culture.

The WORD cultura (lat.) means "processing", "farming", in other words, it is cultivation, humanization, changing nature as a habitat. The concept itself contains the opposition between the natural course of development of natural processes and phenomena and the "second nature" artificially created by man - culture. Culture, therefore, is a special form of human life activity, qualitatively new in relation to the previous forms of organization of life on earth.

In history and in the modern era, there has existed and exists in the world a huge variety of types of cultures as local-historical forms of human communities. Each culture with its spatial and temporal parameters is closely connected with its creator - the people (ethnos, ethno-confessional community). Any culture is divided into components (elements) and performs certain functions. The development and functioning of cultures provides a special way of human activity - social (or cultural), the main difference of which is actions not only with object-material formations, but also with ideal-figurative entities, symbolic forms. Culture expresses the specifics of the way of life, the behavior of individual peoples, their special way of perceiving the world in myths, legends, a system of religious beliefs and value orientations that give meaning to human existence. A serious role in the functioning of cultures is played by a complex of religious beliefs of the most diverse levels of development (animism, totemism, magic, polytheism and world religions). Often religion (and it acts as the most important element of spiritual culture) is the leading factor in determining the uniqueness of cultures and the main regulatory force in human communities. Culture, therefore, is a special form of people's life activity, which makes it possible to manifest a variety of lifestyles, material ways of transforming nature and creating spiritual values.

Structurally, culture includes: features of ways to maintain the life of the community (economy); the specifics of the ways of behavior; models of human interaction; organizational forms (cultural institutions) that ensure the unity of the community; the formation of man as a cultural being; a part or subdivision associated with the "production", creation and functioning of ideas, symbols, ideal entities that give meaning to the worldview that exists in culture.

After the era of the "great geographical discoveries" before the eyes of the astonished Europeans, who had just woken up from the "medieval hibernation", a whole new world opened up, full of a variety of cultural forms and lifestyle features. In the 19th century various types of cultures, descriptions of specific rituals and beliefs that existed in Africa, North and South America, Oceania and a number of Asian countries formed the basis for the development of cultural and social anthropology. These disciplines make up a wide range of studies of local cultures, their interaction with each other, the features of influence on them. natural conditions. The set of local cultures was presented then in the form of a cultural-historical process of two forms:

• linear-stage evolution of a progressive nature (from more simple societies to more complex ones)
• multilinear development of different types of crops. In the latter case, more emphasis was placed on the originality, even the uniqueness of the cultures of individual peoples, and the cultural process was considered as the realization of various historically determined types (the European version of development, the "Asian" type of cultures, the traditional version of the cultures of Africa, Australia, South America, etc.).

In the 30s of the XX century. from cultural anthropology, a special anthropological discipline emerged - psychological anthropology, which made the interaction of personality and culture of various types the subject of its consideration. In other words, the personal factor began to be taken into account in cultural studies. It should be noted that all cultural-anthropological knowledge is often referred to as ethnology. Ethnology is the study of various cultures in the unity of the general theoretical and concrete-empirical (ethnographic) levels of analysis. It is in this sense that the term is used in this textbook. The word "ethnographic" was assigned the meaning of the primary collection of information about cultures (both experimental and field, obtained by the method of participant observation, as well as through questionnaires and interviews).

The term "anthropology" is used by the author in two main senses. First, this term refers to general science about culture and man. In this sense, it was used by cultural researchers in the 19th century. In addition, anthropology was called cultural anthropology, psychological anthropology and social anthropology. There is also physical anthropology, the subject of which is the biological variability of the organism, the external "racial" features of a person, the specificity of his intraorganic processes, due to various geographical conditions.

Anthropological study of cultures is the core, the core of cultural knowledge in general. Such a study is organically connected with the study of the history of cultures identified on the basis of the periodization of the phases of cultural development (the culture of the ancient world, the Middle Ages, the new European culture, the culture of the post-industrial society), distribution regions (the culture of Europe, America, Africa, etc.) or the leading religious traditions (Taoist, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist types of culture...).

The object of study of cultural anthropology is primarily traditional societies, and the subject of study is the kinship system, the relationship of language and culture, the characteristics of food, housing, marriage, family, the diversity of economic systems, social stratification, the significance of religion and art in ethno-cultural communities. Social anthropology is called cultural-anthropological knowledge in Europe, primarily in England and France. As its hallmark, one can single out increased attention to social structure, political organization, management and the application of the structural-functional research method.

The subject of cultural studies can be various forms of cultures, the basis for the selection of which is time, place of distribution or religious orientation. In addition, the subject of cultural studies can be theories of culture developed in art form (fine arts, sculpture, music), in literature, as elements of philosophical systems. Culturological research can be based on the analysis of the text, individual aspects of the development of spiritual culture, primarily various forms of art.

2. Approaches to the definition of the concept of "culture"

PRACTICALLY all definitions of culture are united in one thing - this is a characteristic or way of life of a person, not animals. Culture is the basic concept for designating a special form of organization of people's lives. The concept of "society" is interpreted by many, although not all, researchers of cultures as a set or aggregate of individuals living together. This concept describes the life of both animals and humans. One can, of course, challenge such an interpretation, but it is very common in the cultural and anthropological tradition, primarily in the United States. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the concept of "culture" to express the specifics of human existence*.

* In this study guide, the concepts of "society" and "culture" are often used as synonyms.

Diverse definitions of the concept of "culture" are associated with one or another direction in the study of the theoretical concept used by various researchers. The first definition of the concept was given by the classic of the evolutionist direction E. Tylor. He considered culture as a combination of its elements: beliefs, traditions, art, customs, etc. Such an idea of ​​culture left its mark on his culturological concept, in which there was no place for culture as an integrity. The scientist studied it as a series of elements becoming more complex in the process of development, for example, as a gradual complication of objects of material culture (tools of labor) or the evolution of forms of religious beliefs (from animism to world religions).

In addition to the descriptive definition, two approaches to the analysis of the concept of "culture" and, accordingly, to its definition competed in cultural studies. The first belongs to A. Kroeber and K. Klakhon. " culture consists- according to them - from internally contained and externally manifested norms that determine behavior mastered and mediated with the help of symbols; it arises as a result of the activities of people, including its embodiment in [material] means. The essential core of culture is made up of traditional (historically formed) ideas, primarily those to which special value is attributed. Cultural systems can be considered, on the one hand, as the results of human activity, and on the other, as its regulators.""(1) . AT this definition culture is the result of human activity; behavioral stereotypes and their characteristics occupy a significant place in the study of cultures in accordance with this approach to definition.

L. White, in defining culture, resorted to a subject-material interpretation. Culture, he believed, represents a class of objects and phenomena that depend on a person's ability to symbolize, which is considered in an extrasomatic context (2) . Culture for him is a holistic organizational form being of people, but considered from the side of a special class of objects and phenomena.

The problem of defining culture was specially devoted to the book by A. Kroeber and K. Klakhon "Culture, a critical review of definitions" (1952), in which the authors gave about 150 definitions of culture. The success of the book was huge, so the second edition of this work has already included more than 200 definitions of culture. I would like to emphasize that each type of definition highlights its own facet in the study of cultures, which sometimes becomes the starting point for one or another type of cultural theory. Along with the definitions of culture by L. White, A. Kroeber and E. Tylor, there are a number of types of definitions.

The so-called normative definitions of culture are connected with the way of life of the community. So, according to K. Wissler, " the way of life followed by a community or tribe is considered a culture... The culture of a tribe is a set of beliefs and practices..."(3) .

A large group is made up of psychological definitions of culture. For example, W. Sumner defines culture " as a set of adaptations of a person to his living conditions"(4) . R. Benedict understands culture as acquired behavior that each generation of people must learn anew. G. Stein expressed a specific point of view on culture. According to him, culture is search for therapy in the modern world. M. Herskovitz considered culture " as the sum of behavior and way of thinking that forms a given society"(5) .

A special place is occupied by the structural definitions of culture. The most characteristic of them belongs to R. Linton:
"a) Culture is ultimately nothing more than the organized, repetitive reactions of the members of society;
b) Culture is a combination of acquired behavior and behavioral outcomes, the components of which are shared and inherited by members of a given society." (6) .
Structural can also include the definition given by J. Honigman. He believed that culture consists of two types of phenomena.
The first is "socially standardized behavior-action, thinking, feelings of a certain group."
The second is "material products ... the behavior of a certain group"(7) .
In subsequent chapters, we will show how the initial assumptions embedded in certain types of definitions are realized in the real fabric of cultural theory. As a result of a brief review of the types of definitions (in fact, there are even more types: genetic, functional definitions ...), we can conclude that they are still talking about the form of organization of human life, its features belonging to different peoples. In this manual, the term "ethno-cultural community" will also be used to designate a separate culture.

In modern cultural studies (as well as in anthropology of the 50-60s) there is one important debatable problem - about the status of the concept of "culture": how the concept of "culture" relates to the phenomena, objects of reality that it describes. Some believe that the concept of culture (as well as the concept of ethnos and some other general universal categories) is only pure ideal types, abstractions that exist in the heads of individuals (in this case, culturologists), logical constructs that are difficult to correlate with a specific historical reality. Others (among them, first of all, one should name the founder of culturology L. White) are of the opinion about the subject-material nature of culture, which, by the way, is expressed in definitions, considering culture as a class of objects, phenomena ... and correlate the type of culture directly with the corresponding phenomena of social reality.

How is this contradiction resolved? First, each of the parties defends its rightness, based on its own definitions of culture. In this sense, there is some truth in both positions. True, the problem of correlating the concept and living diverse reality remains. Proponents of understanding culture as a logical construct usually ask: show this culture, explain how to perceive it empirically. Naturally, culture as a form of organization of human experience, the way of life of an individual people, is difficult to see, touch, as a material thing. Cultural stereotypes exist only in human actions and in cultural tradition. In addition, there is one circumstance that is very significant for cultural studies and for the sciences of man as a whole.

The peculiarity of culture lies precisely in the fact that some of its elements and phenomena exist as ideas (ideal formations) shared by all members of a given ethno-cultural community. Ideas or images can be objectified, materialized in words, legends, in writing in the form of an epic or works of fiction, etc. The very concept of "is" or "exist" as applied to culture means not only material and material being, but ideal , figurative functioning. Culture presupposes the existence of a special subjective reality, the simplest example of which is a special attitude, or mentality. Therefore, considering, in principle, a very complex question of the relationship between the concept of culture and historical reality, it must be remembered that the social reality of a person has two dimensions - object-material and ideal-figurative.

3. Traditional and modern culture

ANTHROPOLOGICAL study of cultures necessarily includes explicit or implicit opposition, comparison of traditional and modern types of societies. Traditional culture (or type of society) is (in the very first approximation) a society in which regulation is carried out on the basis of customs, traditions, and regulations. The functioning of modern society is ensured by codified law, a set of laws that are changed through legislative bodies elected by the people.

Traditional culture is common in societies where changes are imperceptible for the life of one generation - the past of adults turns out to be the future of their children. An all-conquering custom reigns here, a tradition preserved and passed down from generation to generation. Units of social organization are made up of familiar people. Traditional culture organically combines its constituent elements, a person does not feel discord with society. This culture organically interacts with nature, one with it. This type of society is focused on the preservation of identity, cultural identity. The authority of the older generation is indisputable, which makes it possible to resolve any conflicts without bloodshed. The source of knowledge and skills is the older generation.

The modern type of culture is characterized by fairly rapid changes occurring in the process of continuous modernization. The source of knowledge, skills, cultural skills is an institutionalized system of education and training. A typical family is "children-parents", the third generation is absent. The authority of the older generation is not as high as in traditional society; the conflict of generations ("fathers and sons") is clearly expressed. One of the reasons for its existence is the changing cultural reality, each time determining new parameters for the life path of a new generation. Modern society is anonymous, it consists of people who do not know each other. Its important difference lies in the fact that it is unified-industrial, universally the same. Such a society exists predominantly in cities (or even in megacities, in an endless urban reality, such as the east coast of the United States), being in a state of disharmony with nature, a global imbalance known as the ecological crisis. A specific feature of modern culture is the alienation of man from man, the violation of communication, communication, the existence of people as atomized individuals, cells of a giant superorganism.

The traditional culture is pre-industrial, as a rule, non-literate, the main occupation in it is Agriculture. There are crops that are still at the hunting and gathering stage. The most diverse information about traditional cultures is brought together in the "Ethnographic Atlas" by J. Murdoch, first published in 1967. Currently, a computer data bank of more than 600 traditional societies has been created (it is also known as the "Areal Card Index of Human Relations" - Human Relations Area files). Analyzing individual problems of cultural studies, we use his data. In the following presentation, along with the term "traditional culture" (society) will be used as a synonym for the concept of "archaic society" (culture), as well as "primitive society" (culture) due to the use of the latter by a number of researchers of cultures.

The question of correlating the selected types of cultures with real historical reality is quite natural. Traditional societies still exist in South America, Africa, and Australia. Them character traits largely correspond to the type of culture described by us earlier. The real embodiment of industrial culture is the USA, the urbanized (urban) part of Europe. True, one must keep in mind that in the rural areas of developed industrial countries there is a tendency to preserve the traditional way of life. Thus, two types of culture can be combined in one country - unified industrial and ethnically original, traditionally oriented. Russia, for example, is a complex mix of traditional and modern cultures.

Traditional and modern cultures are two poles in a wide range of intercultural studies. It is also possible to single out a mixed type of societies-cultures involved in industrial modernization, but nevertheless retaining their cultural traditions. In a mixed traditional-industrial type of culture, elements of modernization and ethnically determined stereotypes of behavior, way of life, customs, and national characteristics of the worldview are relatively harmoniously combined. Examples of such societies are Japan, some countries in Southeast Asia and China.

4. Cultural (social) and biological ways of life

AS IS CLEAR from the foregoing, a fundamental role in the emergence, development and reproduction of cultures is played by the characteristics of human activity. This is also the aim of many of the original definitions of culture on which anthropologists rely. It's about about the symbolic nature of culture, acquired stereotypes of actions, about a special (cultural) type of human behavior or about specific forms or types of activities that exist within the framework of culture. So, man, interacting with the surrounding reality in a special way, created a "second nature" - material culture and an ideal-figurative sphere of activity. The creatures living on Earth have formed two types of life: instinctively-biological and culturally expedient (social). Comparing them, we will try to answer the question, what is the specificity of the cultural mode of activity.

With an instinctive type of life, hereditarily acquired (innate) stereotypes of behavior dominate, often very rigidly linked to external natural conditions. The nature of the activity is predetermined by the anatomical and physiological structure of the organism, which leads to the specialization of animal activity (for example, predator, herbivore, etc.) and existence in a certain area in a living environment, in limited climatic conditions. In the actions of animals, a decisive role is played by hereditarily fixed reactions to external events- instincts. They serve animals of a certain species as a way to meet their needs, ensure the survival and reproduction of the population (communities). The object of changes (necessary in the transformation of external conditions) is the organism, the body of the animal. Of course, it would be an extreme simplification to describe the biological type of life activity only within the framework of the formula c-p ("stimulus-response"). In the instinctive type of life there is a place for learning and modification of innate stereotypes. Animals in the experiment are able to solve problems for ingenuity, in natural conditions they show instant resourcefulness. Moreover, ethologists talk about the presence of feelings in animals (devotion, disinterested love for the owner), etc.

It is important to understand at the same time that the type of organization of animal life is no less (or maybe more) complex than that of humans. After all, animals have millions (!) years of selection of forms of interaction with each other and the external environment. Despite the decisive role of the genetic program in the biological type, animal behavior studies carried out in recent decades have opened up a most complex world of relationships, regulated by finely tailored and at the same time plastic behavioral mechanisms. The biological type of life cannot be called inferior; a less developed mode of activity compared to the cultural mode. This is another, qualitatively different type of activity, the features of the functioning of which we are gradually learning only now.

Let us give just one example of the possibilities of adaptation and the development of means of protection and survival from the animal world. Everyone knows that bats use ultrasonic radar (sonar) to capture and locate their prey. More recently, it has been found that some insects (a species of butterfly) have developed defensive reactions against bats. Some sensitively feel the touch of the ultrasonic locator, others have a more complex multi-level protection mechanism that allows not only to feel the touch of the ultrasonic beam, but also to create strong interference, leading to a temporary “sonar jamming” of the bat, to the loss of its ability to navigate in. space. The discovery of such a phenomenon in animals has become possible only with the help of modern supersensitive electronic technology. Summarizing brief description instinctive type of life, its complexity as a form of organization of the living and the presence of a number of phenomena within it should be emphasized, from which the way of human life later developed (features of group behavior, organization of collective interaction in a flock, etc.).

The anatomical and physiological structure of the human body does not predetermine any one type of activity in fixed natural conditions. Man is universal in nature, he can exist anywhere in the world, master a wide variety of activities, etc. But he becomes a man only in the presence of a cultural environment, in communication with other beings like himself. In the absence of this condition, even his biological program as a living being is not realized in him, and he dies prematurely. Outside of culture, a person as a living being perishes. Throughout cultural history, a person organically remains unchanged (in the sense of the absence of speciation) - all changes are transferred to his "inorganic body" of culture. Man as a single biological species created at the same time the richest variety of cultural forms expressing his universal nature. In the words of the famous biologist E. Mayr, a person specialized to despecialization, i.e. he objectively has a basis for choice, an element of freedom.

Human activity is mediated. Between himself and nature, he places objects of material culture (tools, domesticated animals and plants, housing, clothing, if necessary). Intermediaries - words, images, cultural skills - exist in the interpersonal realm. The whole organism of culture consists of complexly organized intermediaries, cultural institutions. In this sense, culture is seen as a kind of superorganism, the inorganic human body. Human activity does not obey the "stimulus-response" scheme, it is not only a response to external stimuli. It contains a mediating moment of reflection, conscious action in accordance with a goal that exists in an ideal form in the form of a plan, image, intention. (It is not for nothing that the Russian scientist I.M. Sechenov considered thinking as an inhibited, i.e. mediated by a period of time, reflex.)

The ideal-planning nature of activity is a fundamental feature that makes it possible for the existence and constant reproduction of culture. Having an idea about a thing or action, a person embodies it in external reality. Arising ideas, images, he objectifies in a material or ideal form. A specific feature of the cultural mode of activity is the removal of its products outside. E. Fromm spoke about the need for external realization of a person's creative ability; M. Heidegger used a metaphor to describe this process: the concept of "being thrown into the world"; Hegel designated this phenomenon as objectification (ideas).

The peculiarity of the human mode of activity is such that another person can understand the meaning of the purpose of this or that materialized product of culture. Hegel called this deobjectification. Let us give the simplest example of such a phenomenon. According to the forms of the tools of labor of prehistoric eras discovered by archaeologists, one can understand their function, purpose, the “idea” that their creator had in mind. This mode of activity opens up the possibility of understanding the cultures of long-vanished peoples.

At the same time, we must not forget that a person acts not only with material objects, but also with ideal forms (mental activity of the most diverse kind). This leads to the division of cultural reality into ideal and material reality. At the same time, the first acquires independent development in culture and becomes the most important regulator of relationships between people. The presence of an ideal planning feature of activity allows us to talk about models, patterns of desired behavior and actions that an individual learns in every culture.

A person can transform the world with the help of imagination, just as a child in childhood changes ordinary objects into fabulous ones in a playful reality. K. Lorenz called this creative aspect of activity the ability to visualize, to create situations that have no analogue in reality.

An important aspect of human activity is its symbolic-sign character. The most common signs in culture are words, the meaning of which is not associated with a material, sound form. Many rituals, or rather their cultural purpose, functions, do not directly follow from the content of ritual actions, but have a symbolic meaning.

Anthropology is a set of scientific disciplines dealing with the study of man, his origin, development, existence in the natural (natural) and cultural (artificial) environments.

In short, the subject of anthropology is the human being.

1) as a general science of man, combining the knowledge of various natural sciences and the humanities;

2) as a science that studies the biological diversity of man.

Soviet anthropology, according to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, consisted of the following main sections: human morphology, the doctrine of anthropogenesis and racial science.

Human morphology is divided into somatology and merology. Somatology studies the patterns of individual variability of the human body as a whole, sexual dimorphism in body structure, age-related changes in size and proportions from the embryonic period to old age, the influence of various biological and social conditions on the body structure, human constitution. This section is most closely related to medicine and is essential for establishing the norms of physical development and growth rates, for gerontology, etc.

Merology is the study of variations in individual parts of an organism. Comparative anatomical studies included in merology are devoted to elucidating the similarities and differences of each organ of the body and each organ system of a person in comparison with other vertebrate animals, mainly mammals and, to the greatest extent, with primates. As a result of these studies, the family ties of man with other creatures and his place in the animal world are clarified. Paleoanthropology studies the bone remains of fossil humans and close relatives of humans - higher primates. Comparative anatomy and paleoanthropology, as well as embryology, serve to clarify the problem of the origin of man and his evolution, as a result of which they are included in the doctrine of anthropogenesis, which is closely related to philosophy, as well as to the archeology of the Paleolithic, the geology of the Pleistocene, the physiology of the higher nervous activity of humans and primates, psychology and zoopsychology, etc. This section of Anthropology deals with such issues as the place of man in the system of the animal world, his relationship as a zoological species to other primates, the restoration of the path along which the development of higher primates proceeded, the study of the role of labor in the origin of man, the allocation of stages in the process of human evolution, the study of the conditions and causes of the formation of a modern type of man.

Racial Studies, the branch of Anthropology that studies the human races, is sometimes loosely called "ethnic" Anthropology; the latter applies, strictly speaking, only to the study of the racial composition of individual ethnic groups, i.e., tribes, peoples, nations, and the origin of these communities. Racial science, in addition to these problems, also studies the classification of races, the history of their formation and such factors of their occurrence as selective processes, isolation, mixing and migration, the influence of climatic conditions and the general geographical environment on racial characteristics. In that part of racial research that is aimed at studying ethnogenesis, Anthropology conducts research in conjunction with linguistics, history, and archeology. In studying the driving forces of race formation, anthropology comes into close contact with genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of speciation. The study of races in Anthropology has implications for the solution of many problems. It is important for resolving the issue of the ancestral home of modern man, the use of anthropological material as historical source, highlighting the problems of taxonomy, mainly small systematic units, knowledge of the patterns of population genetics (See. Population genetics), clarification of some issues of honey. geography. Racial science is of great importance in the scientific substantiation of the fight against racism.

Biological anthropology deals with the study of historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties - anthropological features.

The subject of study of biological (or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. The task of biological anthropology is to identify and scientifically describe the variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological traits and systems of these (anthropological) traits, as well as to identify the causes of this diversity.

The levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.

Physical anthropology has several main sections - directions for the study of human biology. We can talk about historical anthropology, which explores the history and prehistory of human diversity, and geographic anthropology, which explores the geographic variability of man.

History of anthropology

As an independent scientific discipline, physical anthropology took shape in the second half of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously in the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, the first scientific anthropological societies were established, the first special anthropological works began to be published. The founders of scientific anthropology are P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, ​​A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin.

The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and particular anthropological methods, the formation of specific terminology and the very principles of research, the accumulation and systematization of materials relating to issues of origin, ethnic history, and racial diversity of man as a biological species.

Russian anthropological science by the beginning of the 20th century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA

Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The official year of the "birth" of anthropology in Russia is 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanov (1834–1896), the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers (later renamed the Society of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography Lovers - OLEAE) was organized. The origins of anthropological research in Russia are associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples Russian Empire during the XVIII-XIX centuries.

One of the greatest naturalists of the 19th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792–1876) is also known as one of the greatest anthropologists of his time, as an organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. In his work “On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes” (1822), a view is developed about the origin of mankind from a common “root”, that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their habitats. .

The works of N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846–1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much with his work in this area as with his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other areas of the South Pacific.

The development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. 19th century called the "Bogdanov period". Professor of Moscow University A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural Science Lovers.

The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural history knowledge. The work program of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a complex science of the physical type of a person and his culture.

D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.

D. Anuchin's first major work (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic apes and was a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. characteristic feature The whole activity of D. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the "Soviet period" of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.

3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE OF THE DISCIPLINE "ANTHROPOLOGY"

The general goal of anthropology is the study of the origin and historical existence of man.

Anthropology considers man as a kind of social animal, on the one hand, having powerful biological roots in the past, on the other hand, which received great differences from animals in the course of evolution, associated primarily with the strongly pronounced social nature of the human psyche.

Anthropological knowledge is necessary for students of psychological, pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They allow deepening knowledge about the biological essence of a person and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish a person from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his being, etc.

The task of anthropology is to trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, to assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; to study the polymorphism of human types, due to sex, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions, etc.; trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in a particular cultural system.

Students must study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the relationship and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; learn the basics of constitutional and age anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; to master the concepts of racegenesis, ethnogenesis and to know the genetic problems of modern human populations; to know the basic needs, interests and values ​​of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the system "man - personality - individuality" in its social development should be mastered, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.

4.PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical anthropology is a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the variety of its forms.

The diversity of man in time and space is made up of manifestations of a large number of very different features and characteristics. An anthropological feature is any feature that has a specific state (variant), which reveals the similarity or difference between individuals.

Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of signs, morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual – population level.

The tasks of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern man and the interpretation of the causes of this diversity.

Anthropological research methods:

a) morphological;

b) genetic (especially population genetics);

c) demographic (connection of demography with population genetics);

d) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);

e) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);

f) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and the family);

g) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all branches of anthropology).

Anthropology explores the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological features). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the circle of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms, it definitely belongs to the field of biology.

Also historically, the division of physical anthropology into three relatively independent areas of study:

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) is a field that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is the morphology of man, considered in time, measured by the geological scale;

Racial science and ethnic anthropology, studying the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. In essence, this is the same morphology, but considered on the scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by man;

Actually morphology, which studies variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.

5.POPULATION AND ITS TYPES

Population (literally - population) is understood as an isolated set of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.

According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species that inhabits a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group for a large number of generations is isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).

The main population criteria are:

Unity of habitat or geographical location (range);

The unity of the origin of the group;

The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);

Free interbreeding within the group and observance of the principle of panmixia, i.e., the equiprobability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (the absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).

The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for the self-reproduction of the group.

All of these biological definitions are equally fair in relation to humans. But since anthropology has a twofold orientation - biological and historical, two important consequences can be deduced from the presented formulations:

The consequence is biological: individuals belonging to a population should be somewhat more similar to each other than to individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and occupied territory, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;

The consequence is historical: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of a separate human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still not developed hierarchical structure, being subdivided into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time entering into larger population systems (including ethnoterritorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .

6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origin of man, the process of his development.

The complex of approaches to the study of the past of mankind includes:

1) biological sciences:

Human biology - morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;

Primatology - paleontology of primates;

Paleontology - vertebrate paleontology, palynology;

General biology - embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.

2) physical sciences:

Geology - geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;

Taphonomy (science of the burial of fossils);

Dating methods - decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;

3) social sciences:

Archeology - archeology of the Paleolithic, archeology of later times;

Ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;

Psychology.

The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main two are the theories of evolutionism (which arose on the basis of the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism (which arose on the basis of the Bible).

For about a century and a half, discussions between the supporters of these two different theories in biology and natural science have not subsided.

According to evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. The place of man in the detachment of modern primates is as follows:

1) suborder of semi-monkeys: sections of lemuromorphs, lorymorphs, tarsiimorphs;

2) suborder of anthropoids:

a) the section of broad-nosed monkeys: the family of marmosets and capuchins;

b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:

Superfamily cercopithecoids, family marmosetiformes (lower narrow-nosed): subfamily marmosets and thin-bodied;

Hominoid superfamily (higher narrow-nosed):

Family gibbon-like (gibbons, siamangs);

The pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest human relatives;

Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.

7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1

At present, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: dryopithecus - ramapithecus - australopithecine - skilled man - erectus man - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropist) - neoanthrope (this is already a modern man, homo sapiens).

Dryopithecus appeared 17-18 million years ago and died out about 8 million years ago, they lived in tropical forests. These are early great apes that probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and fed on their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was Ramapitek (Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). Ramapithecus are thought to have appeared 14 million years ago and died out about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from fragments of the jaw found in the Sivalik mountains in India. Whether these creatures were upright, it is not yet possible to establish.

Australopithecus, who inhabited Africa 1.5-5.5 million years ago, were the link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecus did not have such natural defense organs as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and was inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as tools for defense and attack allowed Australopithecus to defend itself from enemies.

In the 60s-70s. 20th century in Africa, the remains of creatures were found, the volume of the cranial cavity of which was 650 cm3 (significantly less than that of humans). In the immediate vicinity of the find site, the most primitive pebble tools were found. Scientists have suggested that this creature can be attributed to the genus Homo, and gave it the name Homo habilis - a skilled man, emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found dating back 2–1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired a significant resemblance to Homo erectus.

One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or Homo erectus (Homo erektus), discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed approximately from 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.

The most ancient people have similar features: a massive jaw with a sloping chin strongly protrudes forward, there is an supraorbital ridge on a low sloping forehead, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies within 800-1400 cm3. Along with obtaining plant food, pithecanthropes were engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in the places of their life of the bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffaloes.

8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2

The oldest people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals (at the place of their first discovery in the valley of the Neander River, Germany).

Neanderthals lived during the ice age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but even in the harsh conditions of Europe that has undergone icing, it testifies to their significant progress compared to the most ancient people: ancient people knew how not only to maintain, but also to make fire, they already spoke, their brain size is equal to the brain size of a modern person, tools testify to the development of thinking their labors, which were quite diverse in form and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.

The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: care for the wounded or sick. Burials are found among Neanderthals for the first time.

Collective action already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality of children and adults, and better overcome the difficult conditions of existence, won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals was becoming stronger.

The emergence of people of the modern physical type (Homo sapiens), who replaced the ancient people, occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.

Fossil people of the modern type possessed all the complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries have.

9.EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

An important and still unresolved issue in science is the coordination of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Can the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of the living and further through the gradual development of the simplest unicellular organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into a person in whom there is not only biological, but also spiritual life, to harmonize with the second law of thermodynamics, which is so universal that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder) operating in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?

So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The existence of both universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.

At first glance, it is possible and natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is removed by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite enough to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious circumstance that the influx of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of a large amount of thermal solar energy into the terrestrial biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the terrestrial biosphere, and about such a global most complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work on the self-emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms, which are still unknown to science.

10.BACKGROUND OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM

Among the initial premises of the doctrine of evolutionism are the following:

1) the hypothesis of universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate matter to living matter). - Nothing confirmed;

2) spontaneous generation of the living in the inanimate. - Nothing confirmed;

3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. - Nothing confirmed;

4) unicellular organisms gradually developed into multicellular organisms. - Nothing confirmed;

5) there must be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);

6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the "general law of evolution";

7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered as sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);

8) geological processes are interpreted within very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformism). – Highly debatable;

9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs as part of the gradual layering of fossil rows.

The corresponding counter-premises of the creationist doctrine are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent and factual explanation:

1) the entire Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;

2) God created according to a reasonable plan both unicellular and multicellular organisms and in general all types of flora and fauna organisms, as well as the crown of creation - man;

3) the creation of living beings happened once, since they can then reproduce themselves;

4) biologically explainable evolutionary factors ( natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;

5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;

6) geological processes are interpreted in terms of short time periods (catastrophe theory);

7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the catastrophic model of origin.

The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in worldview premises: what underlies life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.

11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS

The general constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its “total” property to react in a certain way to environmental influences, without violating the connection of individual features of the organism as a whole. This is a quality characteristic of all individual features subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.

A private constitution is understood as separate morphological and (or) functional complexes of an organism that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.

Constitutional features are considered as a complex, i.e., they are characterized by functional unity. This set should include:

Morphological characteristics of the organism (physique);

Physiological indicators;

Mental properties of personality.

In anthropology, private morphological constitutions are most developed.

The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manuvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Stefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Readers, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.

Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:

Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);

Functional diagrams, in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the organism.

12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES OF E. KRETSCHMER AND V. BUNAKA

E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.

It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most of the later classifications. The types distinguished by him under other names can be recognized in many schemes, even if the principles of their construction are different. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - a preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), pyknic and athletic.

Similar, but devoid of many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.

Its fundamental difference from the scheme of E. Kretschmer is a strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The scheme is built on two coordinates of physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of development of muscles. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdominal region and back. V. Bunak's scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account in it.

The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the features of the main types. They were singled out by V. Bunak, since in practice very often the severity of the signs underlying the scheme is not quite distinct and the signs different types often combined with each other. The author singled out two more body types as indefinite, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.

13. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME B. DERYABINA

After analyzing the entire range of existing constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than was considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:

With an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwhat body types are. Proceeding from this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those features or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of the constitutional schemes we have considered;

The a posteriori approach involves not simply imposing the scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of a fixed scale of variability, taking into account its laws. With this approach, theoretically, it will be better to take into account the objective patterns of morphological and functional relationships and the correlation of signs. The subjectivity of typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.

Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:

The first axis describes the variability of the overall dimensions of the body (overall dimensions of the skeleton) along the macro- and microsomia coordinates. One of its poles is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);

The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the form of the locomotor apparatus) and varies from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscular component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (reverse ratio of components);

The third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different segments of the body and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposity (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposity (strong fat deposition). The "constitutional space" is open from all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6–7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12–13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. According to these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is found.

14.ONTOGENESIS

Ontogeny (from the Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or the life cycle, is one of the key biological concepts. This is life before birth and after it, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should by no means be presented as a simple increase in size. The biological development of a person is a complex morphogenetic event, it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, shaping of tissues, organs and their systems.

The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four major stages:

1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;

2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;

3) determination and differentiation of cells; determined cells are those that "choose" a program for further development. In the process of this development, cells are specialized to perform certain functions, i.e., they are differentiated into cell types;

4) morphogenesis - the end result of the above processes is the formation of cell systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.

Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to a change in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, in the whole organism. Even if there are no obvious quantitative changes (actual growth), qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (the shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. With the transformations that occur in the process of ontogenesis, the "emergence" of all types of variability of human biological characteristics, including those that were discussed earlier, is associated.

The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.

15.FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

The ontogenetic development of a person can be characterized by a number of common features:

Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not endless, it goes according to the so-called limited type. The final values ​​of each trait are genetically determined, i.e., there is a reaction rate;

Graduality and irreversibility; the continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those features of the structure that have already manifested themselves in the previous stages;

Cyclicity; although ontogeny is a continuous process, the rate of development (the rate of change in traits) can vary significantly over time. In humans, there are periods of activation and inhibition of growth. There is a cyclicality associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight - in the fall), as well as daily and a number of others;

Heterochrony, or diversity of time (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different systems of the body and different signs within the same system. Naturally, the most important, vital systems mature at the first stages of ontogenesis;

Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take development processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is kept by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the actual genetic control, implemented at the level of the organism due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);

Sexual dimorphism is the brightest characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Once again, we recall that the differences due to the “sex factor” are so significant that ignoring them in research practice negates the importance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another one fundamental characteristic ontogenesis - the individuality of this process. Dynamics of ontogenetic development individual person unique.

16.STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

The process of ontogenetic development can be logically divided into two stages:

The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment the zygote is formed as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;

Postnatal development is the earthly life of a person from birth to death.

The maximum activation of body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21–25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4–5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5–8 years, a weak half-height jump is sometimes noted. At the age of 10-13 years in girls and 13-15 years in boys, there is a clearly pronounced growth acceleration - a growth spurt: the growth rate of body length is about 8-10 cm per year for boys and 7-9 cm per year for girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.

The maximum growth rate of the fetus is typical for the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is noted more often at the 34th week.

The first two months of intrauterine development is the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of "regionalization" and histogenesis (differentiation of cells with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to the differential growth of cells and cellular migrations, parts of the body acquire a certain outline, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - actively goes up to adulthood and continues until old age. But its main results are already visible at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.

By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the growth rate of the fetus slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - during the period when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week-old fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, growth retardation mechanisms contribute to successful childbirth, but this does not always happen. The weight and dimensions of the body of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother's body.

Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm in boys and 49.7-52.2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the growth rate of body length increases again, especially in a genetically large child.

Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16–17 years and in boys aged 18–19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years, there is a decrease in body length.

17.PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS

The oldest periodizations of ontogeny date back to antiquity:

Pythagoras (VI century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20–40 years), autumn (40–60 years) and winter (60–80 years). These periods correspond to the formation, youth, the prime of life and their extinction. Hippocrates (V-IV centuries BC) divided the whole life path a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.

Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky singled out the following categories:

The younger generation - minors (from birth to 5 years) and children (6-15 years);

The flowering generation is young (16–30 years old), mature (30–45 years old) and elderly (45–60 years old);

The fading generation is old (61-75 years old) and long-lived (75-100 years old and older).

A similar scheme was proposed by the German physiologist M. Rubner (1854–1932), who divided postnatal ontogenesis into seven stages:

Infancy (from birth to 9 months);

Early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);

Late childhood (ages 8 to 13–14);

Adolescence (from 14-15 to 19-21 years);

Maturity (41–50 years);

Old age (50–70 years);

Honorable old age (over 70 years).

Pedagogy often uses the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), preschool age(1–3 years old), preschool age (3–7 years old), primary school age (from 7 to 11–12 years old), middle school age (up to 15 years old) and senior school age (up to 17–18 years old). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Gayer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.

The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epoch-making changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.

For at least the last one and a half centuries, up to the last 2–4 decades, a process of epoch-making acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation grew larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This amazing trend reached significant proportions and spread to many populations of modern man (although not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes was surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.

Approximately from the second half of the XX century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epoch-making growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades, we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level, and even about a new wave of retardation (deceleration).

18.DIVING

The term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarity in a set of certain hereditary biological traits (racial traits). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a certain geographical area and natural environment.

Race is a purely biological concept, as are the signs themselves, according to which racial classification is carried out.

Classical racial features include physical features - the color and shape of the eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, the structure of the face in general, the shape of the head. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial features. As auxiliary signs of body structure are used - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the signs of the structure of the body are much more variable within any group than the signs of the structure of the head and, moreover, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial science as an independent source.

The most important properties of racial traits:

Signs of physical structure;

Traits that are inherited;

Characters, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;

Signs associated with a certain area - distribution zone;

Signs that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.

The association of people on the basis of a common self-consciousness, self-determination is called an ethnos (ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.

Determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.

A nation unites people already absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.

19.RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS

There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the features underlying them. A variety of racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:

Created on the basis of a limited set of features;

Open, the number of features in which can vary arbitrarily.

Many of the early systems belong to the first version of the classifications. These are the schemes: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races according to skin color;

P. Topinara (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;

A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in the combination of chronological features. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races, created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, a small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best, they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of mankind. At the same time, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can randomly approach each other.

Most of the racial schemes belong to the second version of the classifications. The most important principle of their creation is geographical position races. First, the main ones (the so-called large races, or races of the first order) are singled out, occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to various morphological characters, small races (or races of the second order) are distinguished. Sometimes races of lower levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called the anthropological type).

Existing open type racial classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) schemes that distinguish a small number of basic types (large races);

2) schemes that distinguish a large number of basic types.

In the schemes of the 1st group, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in the schemes of the 2nd group, their number is 6–8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems several variants are always repeated, and an increase in the number of variants depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.

In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.

20.EQUATORIAL BIG RACE

The equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin coloration, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low average nose, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large oral fissure, and thick lips. Prior to the era of European colonization, the habitat of the representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:

1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high bridge of the nose, average cheekbone diameter, height above average and tall;

2) vedoid: weak development of hairline, less wide nose, smaller head and face, smaller stature;

3) Melanesian (including Negritos types), in contrast to the two previous ones, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in the abundant development of the tertiary hairline, strongly protruding superciliary ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in composition the Melanesian race is much more motley than the Negroid;

4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Vedoid (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) by a very pronounced curly hair; it differs from the Melanesian in greater thickness of the lips, a lower nose bridge and flatter bridge of the nose, somewhat higher orbits of the eyes, little protruding brow ridges, and, in general, higher stature;

5) the Negril (Central African) race differs from the Negroid not only in very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of the tertiary hairline, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;

6) the Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid not only in very short stature, but also in lighter skin, narrower nose, flatter face, very flattened nose bridge, small face size and steatopygia (fat deposition in the gluteal region).

21.EURASIAN BIG RACE

The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by a light or swarthy skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant beard and mustache growth, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, high nose bridge, sagittal nostrils, a small oral fissure, thin lips.

Distribution area - Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, North India. The Caucasoid race is subdivided into a number of minor races:

1) Atlanto-Baltic: light skin, light hair and eyes, long nose, tall;

2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, somewhat smaller growth;

3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloration of hair and eyes, swarthy skin, wavy hair, even more elongated nose than in previous races, somewhat more convex bridge of the nose, very narrow face;

4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, bulging nose, very abundant development of tertiary hairline, relatively short and very wide face, tall;

5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and medium height.

22.ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE

The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) major race is distinguished by swarthy or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, little or very little beard and mustache growth, average nose width, low or medium nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in the American, average thickness of the lips, flattening of the face, strong protrusion of the cheekbones, large face size, the presence of epicanthus.

The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is subdivided into several minor races:

1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very weak beard growth and thin lips, large size and strong flattening of the face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.

The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, poor beard growth, low nose, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others to variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;

2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, less frequency of the epicanthus, a somewhat smaller zygomatic width, a narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, a high nose bridge and a more protruding nose, thick lips;

3) the Far Eastern race, compared with the North Asian, is characterized by coarser hair, dark skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. Typical for her high altitude skulls but small face;

4) the South Asian race is characterized by an even sharper expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian - greater swarthyness, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and smaller stature;

5) the American race, varying greatly in many ways, is on the whole closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. So, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by the large size of the face and its noticeably less flattening.

23.INTERMEDIATE RACES

Races intermediate between the three major races:

The Ethiopian (East African) race occupies a middle position between the Equatorial and Eurasian large races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is more often curly, but less spirally curled than in Negroes. The growth of the beard is weak or medium, the lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. So, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, growth is above average, an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;

The South Indian (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but differs in a straighter form of hair and a somewhat shorter stature; the face is slightly smaller and slightly wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate position between the Veddoid and the Indo-Mediterranean races;

The Ural race, in many ways, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; a concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;

The South Siberian (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asian-American big races. A significant percentage of mixed races. However, with a general unsharp expression of Mongolian features, this race has very large face sizes, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose, lips of medium thickness are characteristic;

The Polynesian race, according to many systematic features, occupies a neutral position; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hairline, moderately protruding nose, lips somewhat thicker than those of Europeans; rather strongly protruding cheekbones; very tall, large face, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, much smaller than that of Negroes, and larger than that of Europeans; the Kuril (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the large races are more pronounced in it. In terms of a very strong development of the hairline, it occupies one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, a shallow canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; low growth.

24.HEREDITY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is a source of human diversity, because it is precisely this biology that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.

The external variability of a person is a product of society: gender and geographical, racial and ethnic differences acquire in society social forms in view of the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to "bornness", "property" or "ability".

The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype (the "program" of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments of its life). A few mistakes lead to negative consequences and in pedagogical practice. They boil down to statements like: a) genes determine the phenotype; b) genes determine marginal capabilities; and c) genes determine predispositions.

The assertion that genes determine the phenotype is erroneous, that is, that the phenotype of an organism can be accurately determined from the genotype. It is upbringing, place and nature of work, social experience that determine the differences in phenotypes. The assertion that genes determine the limiting capabilities of a person (organism) is also erroneous. Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of "empty cells": the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can act only as “depleted” or “enriched” from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.

The position that genotypes determine the predispositions of an organism (personality) is also quite erroneous. The idea of ​​predisposition (for example, to be overweight or thin) suggests that the tendency is manifested under normal conditions. In relation to a person, "normal environmental conditions" look extremely vague, and even the average values ​​for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.

25.THE THEORY OF DIVISION OF LABOR

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.

Under the physiological division is understood the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by sex and age. The expressions "women's work", "men's work" speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of "child labor" (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).

The technological division of labor is inherently infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division overall process labor aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits, into separate components due to the requirements of the technology for manufacturing the product.

The division of human labor means the division of the labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental labor (doctors, scientists, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Knowledge work (development of technologies, education, training of workers and their upbringing) is an ever-expanding sphere.

The social division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between the social groups of society. To which group and how this or that life "share" falls in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

The term "main division of labor" was first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic by labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the forces, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers, enters the sphere of possession, disposal and use of individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of the possession of the past labor of the whole society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the capacity for it also appears as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.

26.THE SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

The initial basic human need, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.

Security and safety is the next most important basic human need. Here and concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is no concern for personal security, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would “bring into order” the world and determine our place in it.

The need for belonging (to a particular community), belonging and affection is the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This is love, and sympathy, and friendship, and other forms of proper human communication, personal intimacy; it is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, victory. The need for attachment and belonging is the other side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of the dissatisfaction of this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication-community (belonging, belonging, attachment) is very important for a fulfilling life.

The need for respect and self-respect is another basic human need. A person needs to be appreciated for his skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., so that his achievements, successes, and merits can be seen and recognized. Here considerations of prestige, reputation and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is still not enough - it is important to respect oneself, to have a sense of one's own dignity, to believe in one's uniqueness, indispensability, to feel that one is doing a necessary and useful thing. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of the dissatisfaction of this need.

Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization is the last, final, according to A. Maslow, the basic human need. However, it is final only in terms of classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, a truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become all that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. The work of a person on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the considered need.

27.SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS

In the broadest context, a synonym for the word "culture" is "civilization". In the narrow sense of the word, this term refers to artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, it is a way of life, thoughts, actions, a system of values ​​and norms that is characteristic of a given society, a person. Culture unites people in integrity, society.

It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and motives that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.

Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented, not established, but arise gradually from Everyday life and social practices of people.

Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value-based development of reality. The vigorous activity of a person, society to meet their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities, without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in the mental mentality.

The fundamental basis of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas, thoughts.

The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture retains only what corresponds to its logic, mentality. New cultural acquisitions - both their own and those of others - national culture always strives to give a national flavor. Culture actively resists alien elements. Relatively painlessly updating the peripheral, secondary elements, the culture shows a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.

Any culture is capable of self-development. This explains the diversity of national cultures, national identity.

28.CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY

The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society, high culture (elitist) and folk culture (folklore) can be distinguished. The development of mass media has led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in terms of meaning and art, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, is capable of crowding out both high and folk culture.

The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of the culture of society, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.

According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:

Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, possession of things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);

Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, avoidance of real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture is also characterized by such a phenomenon, which sociologists called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values ​​of national culture are being supplanted or replaced by samples of mass culture, oriented towards achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and light perception.

Many Russians, and especially young ones, are characterized by the absence of ethno-cultural or national self-identification, they cease to perceive themselves as Russians, lose their Russianness. The socialization of young people takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case, non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of westernized values ​​into the youth environment.

29.SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, at work with various social, gender and age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.

A social worker needs knowledge of an integration socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical direction, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.

Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, and social work. This series includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation and other sciences.

The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationship with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to the probabilistic laws of development, needs an integrated approach in the study and analysis of all spheres of human life.

30.BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY

Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized in a phenotype under the influence and in interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of features of physique and other features that we have considered. Each person has a composition of biologically active substances and compounds peculiar only to him - proteins, hormones, the percentage ratio of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various kinds of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is the biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.

The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of the biochemical status of a person and the role of this particular side of variability in the processes of the body's vital activity in normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem is largely due to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country - to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences, and even mood.

Based on data numerous studies the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:

The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types of a person is substantiated (relatively a small number of endocrine formula models encountered in comparison with their possible number);

Types of the endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;

The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize the extreme variants of hormonal secretion;

These variants are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);

Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.

31. MENTAL PECULIARITIES ACCORDING TO E. KRETSCHMER

According to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a round figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.

A directly opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal disturbances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.

The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another “edge” are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic traits of character or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).

According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymics. They, as it were, in a latent and smoothed form, show the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.

These people are sociable, psychologically open, cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, show the opposite set of mental traits and are called schizotimics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizothymics are unsociable, closed, self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to inner experiences. People of an athletic constitution are iksotimics, they are unhurried, calm, not very eager to communicate, but they do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average health.

Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: the use of clinic orderlies as a “norm” does not at all reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) links between mental characteristics and physique signs were not found.

32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON

Sufficiently rigid connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was done on a different methodological level and deserves more confidence. When describing temperament, the author used not a discrete type, but components, similar to how it was done in his constitutional system: 50 signs were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he singled out three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 signs . Each attribute was evaluated on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 attributes determined the entire component (an analogy with the constitutional system is evident here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia, and cerebrotonia. After examining 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and "mental" traits showed little correlation, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.

People with a viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and in many ways - psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, they have an endomorphic constitutional type.

Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a penchant for adventure. With sufficient sociability, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant association of somatotonic temperament with mesomorphic constitutional type.

Continuing the trend towards a decrease in sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is distinguished by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and stiffness in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.

33.CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES

Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.

Morphological features are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has been studied perhaps the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with the hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the type of inheritance of most of these traits is not exactly known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.

Of all the constitutional features, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie foods, but the trend of this relationship between nutritional level and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a pattern. Food availability and genetics are two different things.

Physiological signs, apparently, are somewhat weaker genetically determined than morphological ones. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs that are combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them as a whole. Obviously, some of them are inherited with the help of one gene, others are characterized by polygenic heredity. Some are little dependent on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, such as heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the factor of heredity will represent the role of a rather determining probabilistic force. On the example of the heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to a frequent heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. The other person under these conditions will be less prone to palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.

The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:

The basic neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;

The psychodynamic level - the properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broadest sense of the word);

Actually the psychological level - features of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, and so on. - to the greatest extent depends on the upbringing, living conditions, attitude towards the person of the people around him.

34.PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development is understood as "a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength."

P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional concept, although applicable in practice. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - that is, signs that determine the "structural and mechanical properties" of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Brock index and Pignet index), as well as weight and height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the “ideal” weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to a certain idea of ideal balance of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to length body minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas work only for a part of people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been applied. The standards of physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and are regularly updated.

The assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are assessments of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, the features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account the indicator of biological age, etc.

Assessing the complex of constitutional features, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is no direct “fatal” relationship between body type and a certain disease and cannot be.

35.ASTHENIC AND PICNIC TYPE

To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.

So, people of asthenic constitution are prone to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a “low supply of physical strength”, but most likely this is simply due to the lower thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more prone to disorders of the digestive system - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, the greater risk of neurosis and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.

The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic type, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, strokes, myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of getting cancer.

The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less explored. It is possible that people of a muscular type are more prone to stress and related diseases.

An essential conclusion from the studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about “bad” or “good” versions of it. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only in certain environmental conditions. So, the probability of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than that of an asthenic in New Guinea. And an asthenic working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic working as a school teacher. Asthenic will feel at the hearth of a steel plant or in a greenhouse much better than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show the best results in sports or working as a loader.

36.THE THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION OF TARD

The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by a person) of values ​​and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is the principle that forms the basis of the process of socialization, and it relies both on physiological needs and the desires of people arising from them, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).

Tarde recognized the “teacher-student” relationship as a typical social relation. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most common personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activity, regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles proceeds in the form of imitation. General values ​​and norms are mastered by the individual in the process of communicating with "significant others", as a result of which normative standards are included in the structure of the individual's needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the framework of the social system. The socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values ​​and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by Z. Freud, put into action with the help of reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (displacement) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the learner are based on feelings of love and respect (to the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).

Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the targeted influence of the educator on the educated, focused on the formation of the desired traits in him.

37.LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION

There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically verified, as evidenced by I. Kohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The premoral level is typical for the relationship between children and parents, based on the external dyad "suffering - pleasure", the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; the moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg proposes to distinguish seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of a person's system of morality. Many people in their development do not reach the moral level. In this regard, the term "moral pragmatism" appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people's business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of "situational morality", the motto of which is: "Moral is what is useful in a given situation."

In childhood, the child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, authorities (“significant others”) play an important role.

The teenager already feels his individuality, as a result of which he strives "to be like everyone else, but better than everyone else." The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, the desire to stand out in a group, not differing in principle from everyone else. A teenager is very normative, but in his environment.

Youth is already characterized by the desire to "be different from everyone else." There is a clear scale of values ​​that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at all costs often leads to nonconformity, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, forms its own subculture, language, tastes, fashions.

The stage of true adulthood, social maturity is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through the role structure and value system, adjusted by culture. Significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - relatives, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.

38.THE THEORY OF VIOLENCE

The focus of the theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. We note at least four areas of research and explanation of human aggressiveness:

Ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of the freedom of the individual without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called "lawlessness" - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;

Freudianism, Neo-Freudianism and Existentialism assert that a person's aggressiveness is the result of the frustration of an alienated personality. Aggressiveness is caused by social causes (Freudianism takes it out of the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;

Interactionism sees the cause of people's aggressiveness in a "conflict of interest", incompatibility of goals;

Representatives of cognitivism believe that a person's aggressiveness is the result of "cognitive dissonance", that is, inconsistencies in the cognitive sphere of the subject. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.

Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggression, more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, in its own way, is trying to explain human genetics.

39.DEVIANT AND DELICENT BEHAVIOR

There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general regulatory requirements. When a person violates norms, rules of conduct, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant (deviating) or (at the next stage of development) delinquent (criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from missing school classes (deviant behavior), to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, then he committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered as offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusal to drink alcohol under certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of the accepted norm of behavior.

The seriousness of the offense depends not only on the significance of the violated norm, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student walks out of the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought to the police can be forgiven even for a serious violation of the law, while a person who has already had a criminal record faces severe punishment for a small offense.

AT modern society the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into the laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually deal with the category of offenders who break the law, as they are a threat to society. The more burglaries, the more people are afraid for their property; the more murders, the more we fear for our lives.

40. THE THEORY OF ANOMIE E. DURKHEIM

Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes involving conscious choice.

An important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior is occupied by the theory of anomie (disregulation). E. Durkheim, investigating the causes of suicide, considered the main cause of the phenomenon, which he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms govern their behavior, people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, radical social changes, life experience is of little help. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his main idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is generally accepted.

The growth of social disorganization is not necessarily associated with an economic crisis, inflation. It can also be observed with a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Please note: the crime rate is always higher where there is a high migration of the population. The theory of anomie was developed in the works of other sociologists. In particular, ideas were formulated about “social hoops”, i.e., the level of social (settledness) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.

41.THEORIES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Structural tension theory explains many delinquency as personality frustration. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel his inferiority and can use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.

The idea of ​​social investment is simple and to a certain extent connected with the theory of tension. The more effort a person expended to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work, and much more), the more he risks losing in case of violation of laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degraded people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, then he steals, as a rule, huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.

Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. This conformity helps to maintain appreciation and respect for us, protects our reputation.

The theory of stigma, or labeling, -

this is the ability of influential groups in society to brand deviants to some social or national groups: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.

Supporters of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows you to label a person as a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).

The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.

42.CONTROL IN SOCIETY

Any society for the purpose of self-preservation establishes certain norms, rules of conduct and appropriate control over their implementation.

There are three main forms of control:

Isolation - excommunication from society of hardened criminals, up to the death penalty;

Separation - restriction of contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;

Rehabilitation - preparation for the return to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, juvenile delinquents. Control can be formal or informal.

Formal control system - organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of rigidity: the tax inspectorate and the tax police, the police and OMON, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal law, etc.

Informal control is the informal social pressure of others, the press. Possible punishment through criticism, ostracism; threat of physical violence.

Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that prescribe the fulfillment by each person of the requirements and duties necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled mainly through socialization in such a way that they perform most of their social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.

In modern society, of course, the rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups are not enough for social control. On the scale of the whole society, a system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of conduct is being formed, group control is applied by state authorities on behalf of the whole society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the requirements of the laws, society resorts to coercion.

The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated public opinion, morality, norms-rules - laws, law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. The norm-expectation can turn into the norm-rule, and vice versa.

E.D. Vladimirova ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONCEPTS OF MODERN SCIENCE Part I: paleoanthropology SAMARA 2008 3

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "SAMARA STATE UNIVERSITY" DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, GENETICS AND GENERAL ECOLOGY Tutorial on the courses "Concepts of modern natural science" and "Anthropology" for students of the specialties "Sociology" and "Social work" Part 1: paleoanthropology Samara Univers-group publishing house 2008 4

Anthropological concepts of modern science. Textbook on the courses "Concepts of modern natural science" and "Anthropology" for students of the specialties "Sociology" and "Social work": in 2 hours. Part 1: paleoanthropology / E.D. Vladimirova. Samara: Univers Group Publishing House, 2007. 103 p. Reviewers: Cand. biol. Sciences S.I. Pavlov (SamSPU), Ph.D. philosopher. Sciences AN Ognev (Samara University Nayanova) The manual is written on the basis of lectures given by the author for students of the sociological faculty for more than ten years. The material, which, as a rule, causes the greatest difficulties for students in their independent preparation according to existing textbooks, is presented. In addition to issues traditionally included in the circle of problems of the natural sciences, from the standpoint of modern biology, an explanation of some "foggy" aspects of cultural and philosophical anthropology is proposed. Knowledge of this kind is necessary for the formation of a consistent view of the "nature" of Homo sapiens a and of humanity as a whole. Educational literature, methodological explanations, programmed tests on the main topics of the courses "Anthropology" and "Concepts of modern natural science", affecting the modern range of problems of paleoanthropology, the theory of evolution, the biology of modern man, anthroposociogenesis, the origin of language and consciousness are given. The manual is intended for first-year full-time students studying in the specialty "Sociology", but can also be used in the course "Anthropology" by students of the specialty "Social Work". Test tasks are aimed at testing knowledge in the course of classroom work. They are also suitable for independent work of students in preparation for seminars, colloquia and exams. The first part includes 5 topics and is focused mainly on the study of the natural origin of the species Homo sapiens. UDC 572, 612.014 BBK 28.7, 15.5 Vladimirova, 2008 5

Anthropological concepts of modern science Introduction For the formation of a modern, unified and consistent picture of the world, including a scientific view of man, the synthesis of information supplied by natural and humanitarian disciplines is especially relevant. Man, as you know, is both a biological and a social being at the same time. At the same time, the social relations of people that began to take shape in the process of social biological evolution as a form of group adaptation, are based on intersubjective relationships and are carried out with the help of verbal communication. Entering into adaptive interactions with the external world, transforming it, a separate human personality functions as an active subject, desiring recognition from other people. Human beings are intelligent due to their exposure to language and culture in general. The sphere of socio-cultural relations of people is unthinkable without speech activity. Therefore, in this manual, along with the issues of the biological evolution of the human race, great importance is given to the problems of biological prerequisites and the origin of natural language 1. At present, the contribution of natural science to the comprehensive study of man cannot be overestimated. As for the humanitarian study of man, here, until recently, a widely recognized point of view dominated, substantiating the special specifics of the methods of the humanities. According to this position, in the "sciences of the spirit", that is, in the humanities, the priority is not "objective" knowledge, as free as possible from the individual position of the researcher (this is the method and goal of natural science), but "understanding" 2. "We explain nature, We understand mental life,” said the German philosopher, psychologist and cultural historian Wilhelm Dilthey. An innovative feature of science in the late 20th and early 21st centuries is the emergence of objective methods of humanitarian knowledge, associated primarily with the development of linguistics, in particular, structural linguistics. Another point of contact between the humanities and natural sciences of recent times concerns the idea of ​​a “genetic” relationship between animal communication systems and human natural language. “Natural sign systems precede language on the ladder of the evolution of living nature, are primary in relation to it, and artificial languages, in the same order of evolution, follow language, are secondary to it,” writes the largest Russian linguist Academician Yu.S. Stepanov 3. 1 The issues of the biological evolution of the genus Man are presented mainly in the first part of the manual, the biological and social aspects of anthroposociogenesis in the second. 2 These are the ideas of the philosophers J.G. Herder, M. Weber, W. Dilthey, M. Heidegger and others. 3 Stepanov Yu.S. Semiotics. M.: Nauka, 1971. S. 47. 6

In this manual, anthropological phenomena, traditionally of interest to the humanities, are considered from a natural science point of view. From this position, the symbolic ability of a person, sign communication, language, ritual, reason, consciousness, the unconscious are the necessary conditions and evolutionary-historical consequences of natural adaptation of socialized representatives of the species Homo sapiens (L.). The order of submission of material in this manual corresponds to the sequence of the approved curriculum and lecture course. After the title of the topic, the main concepts, basic ideas, key theoretical provisions of the educational section are given. This material is a kind of "guide" on the topic, facilitating further independent comprehension of information. This manual is a continuation of the previously published teaching aid "Anthropology" 1, which contains the general program of the course, additional literature (more than 150 sources), explanatory chronological tables, an educational glossary and topics for essays. This manual, along with lecture notes and textbooks, must be used when writing an essay, as well as for preparing for seminars, tests, colloquium and exams. To prepare for the performance of tests, one should also use the text of lectures, as well as university textbooks on the "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" and "Anthropology". In some cases, on certain issues of the program, special educational literature is additionally offered. During its selection, as the main criterion, the availability of the content of the texts for first-year students who do not yet have special knowledge was taken into account. In the course of the sequential mastering of the educational material, it is not recommended to skip the performance of control work. If several tests are given on one topic, then they are arranged as the material becomes more complex and deep. Programmed tests are designed in such a way that, in addition to assessing the knowledge that students have at the time of working on the control, during the very execution of the test task, provide additional educational information, lead students to think, invite them to try to solve the problem on their own, point out the gaps in knowledge . Therefore, the implementation of the tests given in this manual is a prerequisite for training. Whatever the result of your test work, it is necessary, after verification and clarification, to remember the correct answers. Basic educational literature for the entire course: 1. Anthropology. Textbook for students of higher educational institutions. Team of authors: V.M. Kharitonov, A.P. Ozhigova, E.Z. Godina, E.N. Khrisanfova, V.A. Batsevich. Moscow: Humanitarian Publishing Center VLADOS, 2004. 2. Anthropology. Teaching aid for students of the specialties "sociology" and "social work". Comp. Vladimirova E.D. Samara: Samara University Publishing House, 1999, 2003. 3. Anthropology. Reader. Textbook for students. Ed. DI. Feldstein. Moscow-Voronezh: MPSI, MODEK, 2003. 4. Gorelov A.A. Concepts of modern natural science. Lecture course. Moscow: Center, 1998. 5. Tegako L.I., Salivon I.I. Fundamentals of modern anthropology. Minsk, 1989. 1 Anthropology. Teaching aid for students of the specialties "Sociology" and "Social work" 1. Comp. Vladimirova E.D. Samara: Publishing House Samara University, 1999, 2003. 7

6. Tegako L., Klitinsky E. Anthropology. Tutorial. M.: New knowledge, 2004. 7. Harrison J., Weiner J., Tenner J., et al. Human biology. Translation from English. Ed. V.V. Bunak. M., 1979. 8. Khasanova G.B. Anthropology. Tutorial. M.: KNORUS, 2004. 9. Khomutov A.E. Anthropology. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2002. Additional educational literature for the entire course: 1. Anthropology. Reader. Textbook / Authors-compilers: L.B. Rybalov, T.E. Rossolimo and others. M.: IPO MODEK, 2003. 2. Budanov V.G., Melekhova O.P. Concepts of modern natural science. Moscow: MGTUGA. 1998. 3. Dubnishcheva I.A. Concepts of modern natural science. Novosibirsk, YuKEA: 1997. 4. Karpenkov S.Kh. Concepts of modern natural science: A textbook for universities. M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997. 5. Kartashkin B.A. Modern concepts of natural science. M.: LLP "Lux-art", 1997. 6. Roginsky Ya.Ya., Levin M.G. Anthropology. Moscow: Education, 1978. 7. Ruzavin G.I. Concepts of modern natural science: A textbook for universities. M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997. 8. Stepin B.C., Kuznetsova L.I. Modern scientific picture of the world. M.: Nauka, 1997. 9. Khrisanfova E.N., Perevozchikov I.V. Anthropology. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1991, 2007. Internet resources: 1. Arutsev A.A., Ermolaev B.V., Kutateladze I.O., Slutsky M.S. Concepts of modern natural science. Tutorial. Electronic variant. http://zaoch.pomorsu.ru/multimedia/est/pos/index.html or http://www.philosophy.ru/edu/ref/kse/arucev/ 2. Vladimirova E.D. Anthropology. Teaching aid. Key problems of anthropology. Control works on anthropology. http://www.ssu.samara.ru/~zoo/base/base.html 3. Gnatik E.N. Concepts of modern natural science: curricula by topics, literature, list of questions for self-study. http://www.humanities.edu.ru/db/msg/55201 4. Ivanov-Shatz A.K. Concepts of modern natural science or "Universe, life, mind". http://www.limm.mgimo.ru/science/ 5. Naidysh V.M. Concepts of modern natural science: http://www.iu.ru/biblio/archive/naydishev_koncepcija/13.aspx 6. Poteev M.I. Concepts of modern natural science: an electronic textbook. http://de.ifmo.ru/bk_netra/start.php?bn=12 7. Siparov S.V. Concepts of modern natural science: lecture course http://www.philosophy.ru/edu/ref/kse/siparov/ 8

Theme 1. The subject and tasks of modern anthropology Anthropology is an interdisciplinary branch of knowledge that comprehensively studies man and mankind at all stages of its development, including the period of evolutionary formation. The unity of anthropology, which is, in essence, a set of scientific disciplines about man, creates a specific subject of this science - "universal universals". In other words, the subject of anthropology is the integrative properties of humanity, which allow us to present it as a single whole. A feature of anthropology, as an interdisciplinary science, is a "multi-aspect analysis of the studied phenomena." 1 1.1. Historical view on the subject of anthropology The subject and tasks of anthropology have changed over time, depending on the properties and qualities of a person, which at one time or another were considered the most worthy of study, as well as based on the ideological demands of society. The Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived in the 4th century BC, paid special attention, for example, to the differences between animals and humans, whom he considered a “dual being” (biological and social). For modern anthropology, aspects of understanding the biological foundations of the existence of Homo sapiens are still relevant. It is also of interest to study the "natural" capabilities of people and the restrictions "imposed" on them in connection with their somatic (bodily) organization, or, as they say, "biology". The subject of anthropology has undergone significant changes over the past 150 years. Thus, the Scottish anthropologist James George Fraser (1854-1941), studied the cultural and anthropological characteristics of the inhabitants of the British colonies and the population of the Metropolis, believing the discovered differences to be the main subject of the science of anthropology. He believed that human society evolves, successively passing through three stages of development: magic, religion, science. 2 In a similar vein, the French anthropologist and sociologist Lucien Levy-Bruhl (1857-1939) conducted his research, who was looking for differences in the functioning of the mental mechanisms of people of different civilizations: technocratic and traditional. At present, on the contrary, the main emphasis in anthropology is on the study of general patterns that ensure the socio-biological adaptation of a person. General patterns that interest anthropologists take place due to the belonging of all modern people to socialized representatives of the same species of Homo sapiens, regardless of the specific cultural and historical realities of their existence. Great interest, therefore, is the anthropological study of the most 1 Tereshkovich P.V. Anthropology // The latest philosophical dictionary. Minsk: Interpress service, 1999, p. 39. 2 Tereshkovich P.V. Fraser // The latest philosophical dictionary. Minsk: Interpress service, 1999, p. 782.9

general adaptive features of people that are characteristic of all representatives of the Homo sapiens species, both those who have ever lived in society and those who currently live. Anthropology studies the characteristics inherent in any socialized Homo sapiens, regardless of the time of its existence on Earth or belonging to a particular civilization. So, from the point of view of natural scientific knowledge, anthropology can be defined as the science of the most general ways of adapting a socialized individual. Also of interest to anthropology is the study of patterns of formation of private and subjective manifestations of various phenomena of human nature. The term "anthropology" is of Greek origin. Literally, the word "anthropology" means "the science of man" (anthropos man, logos word, knowledge, science). The first use of this term is attributed to Aristotle, who used the word "anthropology" mainly in the study of the spiritual nature of man. In modern Western European science, a double understanding of the term "anthropology" has taken root. On the one hand, anthropology is the science of the physical, biological organization of a person, on the other hand, the science of the features social life, culture, psychology, the functioning of the symbolic systems of various tribes and peoples in the past and present. Analyzing the priorities of Western anthropology, the authors of one of the modern textbooks write that "American anthropology is an intermediate level of combining the sciences of man and society, the British prefer to talk about social anthropology, the Americans about cultural anthropology." 1 In France, the terms anthropology, ethnography and ethnology are widely used. In the domestic science of the Soviet period, the boundaries of anthropology were much narrower than modern boundaries. Soviet anthropologists studied mainly the variations of the human physical type in time and space. “Anthropology is the branch of natural science that studies the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and his races.<...>The task of anthropology is to trace the process of transition from biological laws, to which the existence of the animal ancestor of man was subject, to social laws, ”Soviet anthropologists Ya.Ya. Roginsky and M.G. Levin. 2 Anthropology in our country has traditionally been attributed to the natural sciences, with reservations about its "special" position in the circle of biological disciplines. When studying anthropology in the Soviet period, it was assumed that the main features of the transition of a person from an animal being to a social being were already discovered and described in the works of one of the founders of scientific communism F. Engels "Dialectics of Nature", "Anti-Dühring", "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State "," The role of labor in the process of turning a monkey into a man. These works were created by F. Engels in the century before last. At present, it is generally accepted that F. Engels foresaw the decisive importance of the special, "sign" role of labor activity in shaping the sociality of primitive hominids. In the 20th century, it was shown that sign forms of activity ensure the "entry" of the child, from the birth of a biological being, "into the human social order." This process of humanization is characteristic of both ontogenesis and phylogenesis of Homo sapiens. Domestic psychologist L.S. Vygotsky, describing the process of socialization of people, pointed out that “cultural development consists in the assimilation of such methods of behavior, which are based on the use and use of signs as means for 1 Meshcheryakov B., Meshcheryakova I. Introduction to human knowledge. M.: Russian. state humanit. Univ., 1994. P. 73. 2 Roginsky Ya.Ya., Levin M.G. Anthropology. M.: graduate School, 1978. S. 7. 10

implementation of a psychological operation.< > Cultural development consists precisely in mastering such auxiliary means of behavior that mankind has created in the process of its historical development, and which are language, writing, number system "1. For this reason, in the second part of this manual, great importance is given to theories of the origin of speech in the process of anthropogenesis and regularities of language functioning in modern society. Given the "biological" nature of man, we must not forget about his duality, or rather, plurality. On the one hand, man is a social animal from the class of small-feeders and a detachment of primates, on the other hand, he is a spiritual being, possessing reason, will, self-consciousness, having a specific mental organization. “Spirituality” refers to the ability of a person to love, create, be free, and establish the meaning of his existence himself. These are, along with specific, complex thinking, those basic qualities that distinguish man from animals. Sociologists study the patterns of people's social life and human psychology later. One of the objectives of this lecture course is to show that the main adaptive mechanisms, motivations and behavioral responses of a person, including his spiritual aspects, are largely based on the biological nature of a person, and do not oppose it. In the words of the great Christian thinker, Russian philosopher V.S. Solovyov (1853-1900), the human soul is “embodied” in the bodily shell of Homo sapiens. The versatility of human nature was intuitively understood by many peoples inhabiting our planet. In the myths of different cultures, there are similar ideas about the essence of man, expressed in cosmogonic theories (cosmogony, from the Greek origin of the world, anthropogony the origin of man). So, in ancient cosmogonies it is said that the gods descended from the sky on earthly animals, and from the merger of the upper, “divine” part of the body and the lower, “animal”, people turned out. Later, the idea of ​​the existence of an animal, a natural “bottom” of a person that forms the symbolism of a comic carnival culture, was developed by Russian philosophers M.M. Bakhtin (1895-1975) and V.N. Voloshinov (1895-1936). This idea of ​​the origin of man is deeply symbolic. The displacement of some somatic 2 human stimuli into the unconscious sphere of the psyche, their further symbolic transformation taking place in accordance with social rules, are the most important discoveries of modern psychoanalysis, without whose ideas, as well as without the ideas of structural linguistics, modern anthropology cannot be imagined. The biological name of the species to which the modern man Homo sapiens (L) belongs, which is translated from Latin as "a rational person, according to Linnaeus." The term was proposed by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), the creator of the binomial (double) nomenclature of wildlife species. Some philosophers and scientists consider the name Homo sapiens to be unsuitable for people who have been waging endless wars throughout the history of mankind, but for the first time in biology it is customary not to change this specific name, even if it later turned out that it did not justify itself in meaning. At different times, the human race was given different aphoristic names. Aristotle called man a "social animal", B. Franklin gave him the name "an animal that makes tools." There were names "unarmed man", "talking man", "doing man". Most fully, from our point of view, reflects the special situation 1 Vygotsky L.S. The problem of cultural development of the child // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 14. Psychology. 1991. 4. P. 6. 2 Somatic stimulus, in this context, a stimulus derived from the functioning of the body. eleven

human species name "dual man", given by the French naturalist Georges Buffon (1707-1788). This name reflects the fact that, to a certain extent, a person is an animal, since he has the bodily organization of primates, and on the other hand, a person, figuratively speaking, is a “child of the gods”, since it contains the desire to search for a higher meaning of existence and perfection. The dual nature of man was noted, of course, by Soviet science, but it was not the animal and spiritual principles of man that were opposed, but, as a rule, the biological and social. The main anthropological methods in the USSR were biological methods: paleoanthropology, comparative anatomy, and embryology. The course of anthropogenesis was considered on the basis of the synthesis of biology, archeology and Marxist-Leninist philosophy. At present, the works of scientists who call themselves anthropologists reflect the problems of structural anthropology, anthropological linguistics, philosophical anthropology, along with the traditional subject of physical anthropology. So, taking into account domestic and foreign experience, the following definition of the subject of anthropology seems to be the most successful: “Anthropology is the science of the universal and objective in human nature and the patterns of manifestation of the particular and subjective. Human nature is understood as norms, customs, behavior, instincts, social institutions, both existing from time immemorial, inherent in all people, and individual and special, characteristic of a given society and for a given individual. Let us dwell on some of the most topical anthropological problems of modern natural science. 1.2. Actual problems of modern anthropology One of the most important problems of anthropology is the identification of the specifics of Homo sapiens as a biological species and a social being. Light on this problem can shed a study of the evolutionary development of people, identifying the factors that led to the emergence of human society. Let us consider the main reasons for the mistrust of ordinary (ie everyday, non-scientific) consciousness towards the natural-science picture of anthroposociogenesis. Man 1 descended from ancestors common with modern monkeys, and this natural process followed the laws characteristic of the evolution of all living nature. Such representations are called natural sciences. The most common mythical ideas about human evolution, characteristic of our contemporaries, include the following views. 1) Man did not evolve; God created a ready-made, modern form of man. This view is refuted by numerous paleoanthropological and archaeological finds. 2) Man originated from life forms that have nothing to do with modern monkeys. Surprised by the grandiose traces of human activity in the distant past, at a time when there was no modern technology, some inhabitants believe that these objects are the creation of not human, but alien hands. Giant stone pyramids, statues of Easter Island, ancient religious buildings found in modern England, bring to life fantasies about the extraterrestrial origin of people. Some believe that man descended from some fantastic races of humanoids who arrived from other planets. The poet Joseph Brodsky has the following lines: 1 We are talking about the body of a person, and not about his soul. 12

I've been to Mexico, climbing the pyramids. Impeccable geometric bulks Scattered here and there on the Isthmus of Teguantepek. I would like to believe that they were erected by space aliens, For usually such things are made by slaves. And the isthmus is strewn with stone mushrooms. Indeed, in the distant past, people treated the superhuman exertion of physical forces differently than at the present time, much more carelessly, since the muscular efforts of a living labor force were valued much cheaper. Therefore, to our contemporaries, such an extra-expensive, in terms of muscular tension, activity of our ancestors may seem implausible. Imagination suggests ideas about the relationship of a person with fabulous mermaids, a snowy, “forest” person. Others believe that people originate from the now extinct inhabitants of the mythical Atlantis. People who are far from science sometimes "pick up" scientific myths about the ancient past of mankind, presented by the press as a sensation. Poorly educated readers are sure that “professional training and special knowledge are not at all necessary for a full-fledged historical research, on the contrary, they even interfere with “letting fantasy fly free” 1. The success of the film “Memories of the Future” is based on such psychology, when the viewer “with enthusiasm picks up this game of "public science", at every step imbued with the belief that solving scientific riddles, interpreting historical monuments is not much more difficult than solving a charade or a crossword puzzle.<...>the resulting picture is “more attractive for uninitiated people than the “boring” and “vague” concepts of scientists” 2. 3) Various microsocial groups or tribes of people originated from one or another totem. In general, totemism is the belief of primitive people that certain social groups originate from one or another species of animals, plants, landscape elements and other surrounding objects or everyday phenomena. Australia, for example, is usually called the "country of totemism", since this religious belief is characteristic of the Australian Aborigines and is very widespread there. Totemic views, at present, are characteristic of representatives of the Paleo-Asiatic peoples of our country. For example, the Chukchi, Koryaks, Nenets, Aleuts since ancient times believe that they are descended from the animals of the crow, spider, wolf, reindeer. On the other hand, as the French anthropologist K. Levi-Strauss revealed, totemism is not only a religion. Totemism, according to Levi-Strauss, is a visual-sensory, that is, a rather primitive method of classifying society into groupings. even in modern people. For example, for the majority of the inhabitants of Russia in the twentieth century, it was necessary to socially identify themselves with workers or peasants, hiding their origin from the nobility, bourgeoisie or intelligentsia, if this was the case. The “correct” origin helped the individual to identify with the concept of “we”, which brought many practical advantages in life and saved from repression. These are the most common mythical views on the origin of people. Science claims that the first people appeared in Africa about 2.3 2.7 million years ago, in 1 Citation. by: Meshcheryakov B., Meshcheryakova I. Decree. cit., p.125. 2 Ibid. 3 More developed (abstract) are conceptual rather than symbolic methods of classification. Primitive associations of a phenomenon with some "improvised" sign were called by K. Levi-Strauss "bricolage". 13

result of the evolution of fossil primates. Despite the biological relationship of modern humans and modern chimpanzees, with whom humans have 95-98% genetic identity, the fundamental differences between humans and animals should be described not in the field of biology, but in the field of social practice. Only a person has consciousness, conceptual thinking and speech, he transforms his environment with volitional labor efforts, and does not passively adapt to it, as animals do. The most important problem of anthropology is the development of criteria for belonging of fossil hominids to the genus Man. Animals have no history, no ancestors. With them, “the individual completely disappears in the genus, and not a single memorable feature distinguishes its ephemeral birth from the subsequent one, which is destined to reproduce the genus, preserving the invariance of the type,” wrote Jacques Lacan, French psychoanalyst, founder of the structural-linguistic direction of psychoanalysis 1. Fossil man he becomes “properly” a person when he begins to bury his ancestors, doing this with respect for the social norms and rules inherited from them, “thus introducing these concepts into his consciousness.”< >“The first symbol in which we recognize humanity by its remains is the tomb” (J. Lacan) 2. Another layer of modern anthropological problems is associated with the need to cultivate tolerance towards representatives of other social strata of society, cultures and nationalities. Tolerance for the "other" is becoming especially relevant in connection with the development of new forms of weapons and the spread of religious extremism. From this point of view, the view of humanity as an integral entity with a common origin, formed by scientific anthropology, is of great importance in the formation of ethnic (and class) tolerance. Why evolutionary theory The origin of a person often encounters active opposition, which can be observed even among highly educated people, cultural figures, famous humanists, not to mention the townsfolk? In modern society, there are a number of reasons for people's distrust of the natural-science picture of anthroposociogenesis, which are of a sociocultural, existential and psychological nature. People who are little familiar with anthropological facts mistakenly believe that the more ancient the ancestor of man, the more similar he is to modern monkeys: he has thicker hair, larger lower jaw, fangs are more pronounced, upper limbs are longer, gait is more stocky, etc. It is quite clear that already at an unconscious level, no one wants to have among their "ancestors" a creature that has a place in horror films. Therefore, “doomed to success” among the general public is the phrase uttered by a priest in the address of an evolutionary biologist back in the time of Charles Darwin: “Your ancestors may have been monkeys, but my ancestors were people.” The following historical fact is known. “In the last century, at the famous Oxford dispute, Bishop Wilberforce ironically asked the advocate of Darwinism Huxley: on what line does he consider himself a descendant of an ape - on the line of his grandmother or grandfather? Huxley replied in a tone that he prefers to descend from a monkey than from a man who sticks his nose into what he does not understand. 3 Thus, for many years, “Darwinism became a bogey that frightened pious people” 4. The materialistic point of view on the origin of man in our country was forcibly implanted for many years, and the alternative (divine, so-called 1 Lacan J. Functions and field of speech and language in Psychoanalysis, Moscow: Gnosis, 1995. 2 Ibid., 3 Quoted from Men A. History of Religion: In Search of the Way, Truth, and Life, St. Petersburg: Slovo, 1991, v.1, p. 200. 4 There S. 88. 14

"creationism") was not presented in secular educational institutions at all. The destruction of communist ideology and the ensuing ideological vacuum led to the strengthening of separatist and religious positions in society. It is known from social psychology that, in case of disagreement with public authorities, people more easily trust oppositional ideas than orthodox ones 1, moreover, religion is a time-tested psychotherapeutic system. Recklessly opposing the origin of man "from God" to the origin "from a monkey", it should be borne in mind that in some religious denominations, for example, in Catholicism, the religious point of view on the emergence of man does not contradict evolutionary theory. Adherents of the position that reconciles the opposites between creationism and Darwinism, while maintaining faith in God, believe that nature has a divine origin, but at the same time they mean that one of the properties of nature inherent in it by the Supreme Being is the ability of living organisms to evolve according to those laws. that have become known to modern biology. The Church's point of view on this issue was reflected in the encyclical of the Catholic Pope Pius XP "On the human race." This church document states that the Church recommends studying evolutionary theory "to the extent that studies show the origin of the human body from pre-existing living matter, but adhere to the fact that souls are directly created by God." The papal encyclical was published in 1958. Such an approach is based on the idea of ​​the divine creation of the world as a process (act) in which people living today take part, and not a single event (fact) of the creation of the world, unchanged once, at a certain moment. The author of the text of this manual believes that with the help of the methods and factual data of the natural sciences, it is impossible to either prove or disprove the creation of the world and nature of the Earth by God. This point of view is shared by many scientists. The fact is that the natural sciences deal with regular, recurring phenomena, and the creation of the world and man by God, according to believers, is a phenomenon unique in importance, having no natural analogues, which was produced once. Consequently, this group of phenomena is not within the competence of the natural sciences. 2. Additional literature on the topic: 1. Malyshevsky A.F. Man's world. Experience of the concept of philosophical enlightenment. M.: Interpraks, 1993. 2. Meshcheryakov B., Meshcheryakova I. Introduction to human knowledge. M., 1994. 3. Minyushev F.I. Social anthropology. Uch. allowance. M.: Academic project, 2004. 4. The human world. Reader. M.: Interpraks, 1995. 5. Raigorodskaya I.A., Raigorodskaya Zh.I. Anthropology. Lecture course. Tutorial. M.: Izd-vo MSKhA, 2003. 6. Tegako L., Klitinsky E. Anthropology. Tutorial. M.: New knowledge, 2004. 7. Sharonov V.V. Fundamentals of social anthropology. St. Petersburg: Publishing house "Lan", 1997. 1 Aronson E. Social animal. Introduction to social psychology / Per. from English. A.A. Kovalchuk, ed. V.S. Maguna. M.: Aspect-Press, 1999. 2 Unfortunately, the author of the manual is familiar with ignoring this principle in the preparation of Orthodox priests. The allegedly "scientific" theory of the evolution of life on Earth was taught by a professor of physics on the basis of biblical stories and the lecturer's own everyday experience according to the canons of the orthodox version of the Orthodox religion. fifteen

Test 1 Interdisciplinary connections of anthropology. The place of anthropology in a number of other sciences Complete the statements below by choosing the appropriate term or concept from the following list: a) hominization; b) anthropogenesis; c) polymorphism; d) Charles Darwin e) anthropology; f) Aristotle; g) adaptation; g) philosophical anthropology; h) Immanuel Kant; i) Claude Levi-Strauss; j) instinct; j) phylogenesis; k) ecology; l) ethology; m) ethnology; o) zoopsychology; o) anthroposociogenesis; p) paleontology; c) linguistics; r) anthropogen; y) Paleolithic; t) systematics; x) method; v) determination; w) immunology; x) human physiology; y) J. Fraser; b) cognitive science (theory of knowledge); s) social field; b) anthropologism; e) sociobiology; j) anthropometry; i) phenotype. Answers must be issued as follows (for example): 1c; 2a; 3t; and so on. 1. The science of man, which occupies a borderline position in the system of disciplines of the natural and humanitarian cycles, is. 2. The central problem of evolutionary anthropology. 3. The formation of a person in the process of forming a society is called 4. The science that studies the functions of the human body, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment of life is. 5. A biological discipline that studies the resistance of living organisms to the penetration of foreign proteins and polysaccharides, including the reaction to infectious agents 6. The presence of several different forms in one species of living organisms is called. 7. For the first time, the term "anthropology" was used .... 8. The sphere of knowledge, which comprehends the problems of human nature and human existence, determines the place of man in contemporary painting of the world is 9. A French anthropologist, who widely applied the humanitarian methods of structural linguistics and semiotics to prove the relationship between the thought processes of "primitives" and representatives of technically advanced civilizations, a structuralist philosopher, a researcher of the indigenous peoples of South America, this is 10. The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual formed based on the genotype of an individual in the process of its ontogenesis is called. 11. The field of knowledge that studies the relationship of organisms and their communities with the environment is. 12. The science of the behavior of animals in natural conditions is. 13. The science that studies the patterns that characterize the features of building models of reality by animals is. 14. The science that explains the origin, resettlement, cultural, social, psychological ties and relations of peoples is. 15. The process of "humanization" of the monkey is called. 16. A biological discipline that studies fossil organisms, their family ties, living conditions. 17. Another name for linguistics is this. 18. The most ancient period of the Stone Age, named so according to the peculiarities of the cultural and technical development of the ancestors of modern man, is. 16

19. The last of the geological periods of the Cenozoic era (the era of "new life"), which is divided into the Pleistocene and Holocene is. 20. The section of biology devoted to the description, designation and systematic classification of all existing and extinct organisms, as well as the establishment of family ties between individual species and groups of species. 21. The set of methods and operations of the theoretical development of reality, the path of the scientist to comprehend the subject of study, given by the main hypotheses is. 22. Latin name for determining the conditions of a process or phenomenon. 23. An evolutionarily developed (innate) form of behavior characteristic of animals of a given species, which ensures their adaptability to the most stereotypical environmental conditions. 24. The complex of adaptive features of an individual, population or species that ensures successful survival and competition is called in biology. 25. A science that combines the methods used in psychology, computer science, linguistics, philosophy and neuroscience to explain the working principle of human consciousness it. 26. The totality of interacting factors of a social nature that influence the behavior of an individual or a group of people is. 27. A sociological approach that builds the concept of society based on a certain understanding of the essence of man. 28. Science, located at the intersection of humanitarian and natural sciences, the subject of which is the search for "boundaries" between the biological and specifically human foundations of Homo sapiens a, is called. Test 2 Object, subject and methods of anthropology Task: Choose the correct answer (or correct answers) from the options provided. Issue the work done as follows (for example): 1a, b; 2b; 3y. 1. Physical anthropology studies: a) the physical type, mental functioning and social structure of representatives of traditional cultures (that is, representatives of modern primitive peoples) in comparison with the corresponding characteristics of representatives of modern technocratic societies. b) comprehending the biological foundations of a person, as well as the problem of adaptation (adaptation) of a socialized individual in a personal (social) direction, that is, in interaction with other people; c) the functioning, adaptation and variety of forms of representatives of the genus Homo in the evolutionary series, as well as racial and constitutional (somatotypical) variations of modern people. 2. Social anthropology is a science that studies the following problems: a) the diversity of races and constitutions of modern man; b) mental mechanisms and social life of savages; c) general problems of adaptation of the individual in society; d) primitive society. 17

3. The “dual”, in the words of Aristotle, “human nature” is explained in modern science by the following circumstances: a) in his daily social practice, a person is forced to make a choice from two conflicting aspirations: instinctive and cultural. The reason for this duality is that the true nature of man, inherited from his biological ape ancestors, opposes the demands of culture; b) firstly, a person lives in a somatic (bodily) reality, that is, he adapts and acts in accordance with the biological needs of the bodily essence of Homo sapiens a, in which the human soul is embodied. Such needs may be hunger, thirst, need for rest, etc. Secondly, a person lives in social reality, that is, acts in accordance with the need for recognition of his desires, actions, assessments by society. 4. The object of any science, including anthropology, is: a) a list of questions and problems facing this science; b) theories, concepts, approaches that allow building scientific models, planning observations and experiments, explaining the data obtained and asking new questions; c) the area of ​​reality with which the given science deals. 5. The subject of any science, including anthropology, is a) problems and questions of interest to this scientific discipline; b) the methodology of science (the philosophical doctrine of the most general ways of organizing the process of cognition and constructing theoretical activity), the methods used by this science, as well as specific methods for obtaining experimental data; c) the categorical apparatus of a given science: its basic axioms, concepts and terms that are part of the scientific models adopted by most theoretical schools and trends. 6. The scientific method, in contrast to a specific technique, is a) technical skills, principles, rules and ways of organizing the process of obtaining specific empirical (experimental) data; b) the path to cognition, given by the hypothesis, a set of methods for the theoretical assimilation of reality. 7. The objects of anthropology can be a) a person and humanity as a whole; b) human evolution; c) somatic constitutions of modern people; d) anthroposociogenesis. 8. Anthropology in modern science is conventionally divided into descriptive and explanatory. In descriptive anthropology, the basis for combining knowledge about man and humanity is philosophy. The functions of philosophy, in this context, are as follows: a) sets the conceptual apparatus of science, offers a theoretical approach to understanding the subject (for example, in anthropology such theoretical approaches can be evolutionary, comparative, etc. ); b) provides a systematic understanding of the object under study, as part of reality, and the subject, as a set of problems under study. eighteen

9. According to the natural science picture of anthropogenesis, man descended from the currently extinct biological ancestors of animals from the class of mammals belonging to the order of primates. At the same time, in the course of transformations of ancient primates and organisms preceding them, evolutionary changes occurred, firstly, according to the same laws by which all living organisms living on Earth evolved and are evolving, and, secondly, evolution occurred under the influence of those the very same factors of evolution that are known to modern synthetic theory regarding the evolution of all other animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms and viruses. In the final stages of the evolution of fossil humans, cultural isolation also came into play as a factor in evolution. From the following ideas about the appearance of man on Earth, select those that do not contradict the natural science theory (the natural science picture of anthropogenesis): a) creationism (the creation of man by a higher being); b) the theory of intervention of extraterrestrial civilizations; c) ideas set forth in the myths of the peoples of the world; d) Ch.Darwin's evolutionary theory; e) modern synthetic theory of evolution. 10. According to one of the definitions, anthropology is the science of "general human universals", which refers to the patterns of social and biological adaptation inherent in all people, regardless of the specific time and place of their residence. The reasons for the existence of such universal laws that describe the properties of all socialized individuals and control the behavior of people are: groups of people living on Earth; b) the existence of people in relatively similar environmental conditions (alternation of day and night, seasons). Identical basic methods of categorization (i.e. ordering using concepts) of events and phenomena based on the classification of reality with respect to the axes and needs of one's own body. Similar in meaning ways of evaluating the events of the external world, based on the unity of the main humanistic motivations and aspirations of people; c) the presence of the same initial mental images, "embedded" in the psyche of people by the Supreme Being; d) logical thinking based on the conceptual formulation and awareness of linguistic meanings. Logical thinking appeared in the process of anthroposociogenesis, as a result of the development of socially normalized rational activity of ancient people, in connection with life in the midst of unpredictable danger and the knowledge of the fear of death; e) the presence of universal structures that function on the basis of binary oppositions (i.e. double oppositions) and logical syntax in the natural languages ​​of any ethnic groups of people. 11. Structural anthropology studies: a) the internal structure of the human body; b) the structure of evolutionary processes that took place in the course of anthroposociogenesis; c) the facts of people's social life, revealing the meanings and meanings hidden behind them, by analogy with the structure of natural language and the structure of the functioning of the unconscious layer of the psyche. 19

Topic 2. Patterns of the evolutionary process 2.1. The basic principles of evolution The evolutionary process is the development of living nature, as a result of which new forms of living beings appear, better adapted to the conditions of their habitat. Planet Earth, space, the whole world are constantly changing, this is the law of nature. Including, the external environment of living organisms also changes. The expression "better adapted forms", taken in relation to living beings, means that the fitness of new forms of life that have appeared as a result of the evolutionary process and have become widespread is, as a rule, higher than the fitness of previous forms. 1 In other words, the “adjustment” of the structure and functions of new life forms to the requirements of the outside world is more in line with the changed conditions of their existence. In addition, living organisms themselves and their ecologically interconnected communities, which are formed in the course of evolution, are constantly becoming more complex and improved. New principles of adaptation are emerging, and the pace of evolution itself is accelerating. Thus, the ancient organisms that lived on Earth adapted mainly due to the appearance of more complex morphological features and it was a very slow process. With the advent of mammals on Earth, a new way of adapting through appropriate adaptive behavior has become widespread in the arsenal of living beings. With the advent of man, life on Earth gradually acquired reasonable forms, and at present the Noosphere is being formed on Earth. The ability of living organisms to evolve is most clearly demonstrated by artificial selection, that is, by breeding animal breeds and plant varieties that did not exist before in nature, in accordance with the preferences set by the selection people. Similarly, natural selection "produces" the habitat of living things. Artificial selection proves that species of living organisms are modified relatively easily and quickly, due to the natural hereditary variability inherent in living beings, under the influence of unidirectional external influences. Let us formulate the main regularities of the evolutionary process (they are highlighted below in italics). Evolution occurs as a result of natural selection based on hereditary variability. Adaptability (that is, fitness) of a particular group of living organisms is always relative: it can only be assessed in connection with the conditions of existence of this group. As a result of high adaptability, according to a well-known domestic evolutionist, population 1 If, as a result of evolution, groups of living beings appear that are worse than their "neighbors" and "relatives" have adapted to changed conditions, such groups of organisms, as a rule, die out. A similar picture is observed if the evolutionary process does not keep pace with external changes. The process of extinction, as well as the evolutionary "ladder" of successively changed forms of any developing group of living organisms, is a widespread evolutionary phenomenon. twenty

biologist and defender of wildlife A.V. Yablokov, it turns out that “the greater success of some genotypes compared to others”, expressed in “high fecundity and the likelihood of reaching reproductive age” 1. The evolutionary process of any species or systematic group cannot be completed completely ( unless this group has died out), since living organisms of individuals, populations, biocenoses cannot be adaptive "by themselves", but only in relation to the conditions of their existence. The living conditions, like the entire material world, are subject to constant changes. The process of evolution of living organisms is irreversible. No species of living organisms can turn into its evolutionary ancestor. Separate groups can regress, adapting to the environment with the help of evolutionarily obsolete ways, but, in general, the evolutionary process only moves forward. The picture of unidirectional evolution is observed in nature because, along with the regular processes known to modern biological science, random factors play an important role in the course of evolution. The sequence of action of “random” evolutionary factors cannot be repeated by retrospective movement, that is, movement in the opposite temporal direction, not only in nature, but even in a more or less complex laboratory model. In the modern synthetic theory of evolution, mutations, drift are considered the main factors of evolutionary changes genes, natural selection, sexual selection, natural periodic population fluctuations, isolation, gene flow that occurs as a result of migrations (migrations) Although individual organisms change in the course of evolution, it is not individuals that evolve, in the scientific sense of this concept, but populations and ecosystems.Populations are polymorphic, that is, they consist of organisms that differ from each other: both genetically and phenotypically.Some organisms included in a given population correspond better than others to the current "requests" of the environment, others worse, but, with In this, for example, they may have genetically encoded traits akami, insignificant at the present time, but necessary for survival in a changed habitat. Different organisms of the same population have different potency to the dynamics of form and function. In the polymorphism of populations, the guarantee of their vitality, the ability to undergo evolutionary changes, the dynamics of the quantitative ratio of organisms with different traits and, ultimately, the guarantee of their survival. According to modern researchers 2, for human evolution, of all evolutionary factors, isolation, and, in particular, cultural isolation becomes the decisive factor. Apparently, different groups of fossil hominids that lived in contiguous territories and had different social organization also differed in different degrees of adaptability. In such microsocieties, the main driving force of evolutionary changes was a combination of not biological, but socio-psychological factors. The cultural isolation of certain groups of ancient people, apparently, was based on the identification of certain individuals with their group. This form of isolation, which is absent in mammals, has led to the fact that the rate of evolution of human fossils has increased dramatically compared to the previous rate. The acceleration of evolution in isolated groups of primitive people was due to ordinary genetic laws, since relatively small and isolated populations of living organisms 1 Yablokov A.V. Foreword by the editor of the Russian edition // Levontin R. Genetic foundations of evolution. M.: Mir, 1978. S. 10. 2 P.I. Boriskovsky (1979), V.P. Alekseev and A.I. Pershitz (1990), R. Carroll (1992), V.A. Shkuratov (1995) and others 21