Development of organizational forms of education in the history of pedagogy. The emergence and development of the system of forms of education. Class-lesson system of education

Attempts to modernize the classroom system: Bell-Lancaster education system, Mannheim, Batavian (Batavia plan), Dalton plan, brigade-laboratory training, Trump plan

At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, an urgent need for education arose in Europe, caused by the development of various industries, crafts and trade, the increasing role of spiritual life - a revival in literature, art, architecture, and science. All this led to the emergence of mass education. The concept collective learning, which was first applied in the fraternal schools of Belarus and Ukraine (XVI century) and became the embryo of the class-lesson system of education. Theoretically, this system was substantiated and widely popularized in the 17th century by Ya. A. Comenius. At present, this form of organization of education, having undergone significant modification and modernization, is the main one in the schools of the world.

What is the essence of the class-lesson system as a specific form of organization of educational work?

The academic year, day, lesson schedule, vacations, breaks between lessons are also signs of the class-lesson system.

Its advantages: a clear organizational structure that ensures the order of the entire educational process; simple management of it, the possibility of children interacting with each other in the process of collective discussion of the problem, collective search for solutions to problems, the constant emotional impact of the teacher's personality on students, their upbringing in the learning process; cost-effectiveness of training, since the teacher works simultaneously with a sufficiently large group of students, creates conditions for introducing an element of competition into learning activities schoolchildren and, at the same time, ensures the systematic and consistent entry of knowledge.

However, it is impossible not to see significant shortcomings in this system, namely: the class-lesson system is focused mainly on the average student, creates overwhelming difficulties for the weak and delays the development of abilities in most of the strong; creates difficulties for the teacher in taking into account the individual characteristics of students, in organizing individual work with them both in terms of content, and in terms of the pace and methods of teaching; does not provide organized communication between older and younger students, etc.

“Working at an imposed pace,” Parkhurst noted in her critique of the classroom system, “is depriving the student of the freedom to work in accordance with his abilities.”

The class-lesson system, according to M. Kupisevich, imposes an artificial organization of work on students, forces them to change subjects frequently for short periods of time, as a result of which students cannot complete things, think them through, deepen their knowledge. The bell is a typical attribute of the class-lesson system, not only determines the time for children to work and rest, but also measures the time at the end of the year for which they must report on their achievements for the whole year of work. As a result, some students are transferred to the next class, while others - albeit weak only in one subject - remain in the second year, although with better organization of work they could successfully get rid of these omissions. The rigidity of the weekly school schedule, which imposes the same pace of work on all children regardless of their ability, encourages repetition.

Undoubtedly, critical statements about the class-lesson system, which have especially spread since the end of the last century, are usually fair and have become the basis of numerous searches for both scientific educators and practicing teachers, on the one hand, new teaching systems, and on the other hand, ways improvement, modification and modernization of the classroom system, organization of training in accordance with the new requirements of a developing society and the achievements of the psychological and pedagogical sciences.

The first attempt to modernize the class-lesson system of organization of education was made in late XVIII- early XIX in the English priest Abella and teacher J. Lancaster. The impetus for this was the transition from manufactory to a large-scale machine industry, which required a large number of workers who would be at least elementary literate. To prepare them, it was necessary to increase the number of schools, and, accordingly, the contingent of teachers who would teach a significantly larger number of students.

This is how a modified class-lesson system of organizing learning called the Bell-Lancaster system of mutual learning arose, named after its founders and applied by the authors in England and India. The essence of this system was that older students, under the guidance of a teacher, first studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught those who knew less.

This allowed one teacher to teach many children at once, to carry out mass education, but the quality of this education itself was extremely low. This explains why the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely used.

IN late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, the issue of individualization of student learning, taking into account the characteristics and their mental development, becomes especially relevant in the further development of organizational forms of education.

Appropriate forms of selective education also appear. In the United States, the so-called Batavian system, which was divided into two parts. The first part is lesson work with the class as a whole, and the second individual sessions with those students who needed such studies: either in order to keep up with the mass of accepted norms, or with those who expressed a desire to deepen their knowledge, that is, with those who have a relatively high ability. The teacher worked with the last category, and the teacher's assistant worked with students who were less capable and those who lagged behind. At the same time, the so-called Mannheim system began to be created in Europe.

The Mannheim system, named after the city of Mannheim, where it was first applied, is characterized by the fact that while maintaining the class-lesson system of organizing education, students, depending on their abilities, level intellectual development and the degree of training, were distributed by class into weak, medium and strong.

The founder of this system, Josef Zikkinger (1858 - 1930 pp.), suggested creating four classes according to the abilities of students:

1 Main classes - for children with average abilities
2 grades for low ability students who "generally don't graduate"
3 Auxiliary classes - for mentally retarded children
4 Classes foreign languages or "transitional" classes for the most capable students who can continue their education in secondary educational institutions

Selection for classes was based on the results of psychometric surveys, teacher characteristics and exams J. Zikkinger believed that, depending on the success of students, they would be able to move from one sequence of classes to another, but this almost never happened, since the system did not allow weak students to reach high level. Program differences in these classes did not contribute to the creation of real conditions for such transitions.

The Mannheim system of education had many adherents, especially in Germany, in the period before the First World War. Some provisions of this system were received positively in France, Russia, the USA, Belgium and other countries of the world. Elements of this system are preserved today in the practice of work. modern school in Australia, USA and England. So, in Australia there are classes for more and less able students; in the USA, classes are practiced for slow learners and capable students; in England, the Mannheim system serves as the basis for the creation of schools, the contingent of students of which is completed on the basis of testing primary school graduates.

In general, the theoretical postulates of this system are still rightly criticized everywhere, it is emphasized that it is built on an erroneous idea of the decisive influence of biopsychological factors on the results of student development; that it humiliates the influence of purposeful educational activity on the formation of the student's personality, does not contribute to the possibility of developing socially conditioned needs in him. The concept of J. Zikkinger and the Mannheim system of organization of learning founded by him turned out to be clearly untenable for widespread use in practice.

The only element of the system that is acceptable features modern development psychological and pedagogical science and practice of advanced schools, is the so-called specialized training. In real pedagogical reality, it is embodied in the form of specialized schools for gifted children who show the ability to in-depth study subjects of certain areas of knowledge - humanitarian, mathematical.

Europe and the USA at the beginning of the 20th century. many training systems were tested, aimed at providing individual active independent educational work of schoolchildren. The most radical of them was the system of individualized learning, first applied by the teacher E. Parkhurst in the first decade of the 20th century. in Dalton, Massachusetts. This system entered the history of pedagogy and school under the name Dalton plan. It is often referred to as the laboratory or workshop system.

The pedagogical credo of the author of this system was as follows: the success of educational activity depends on adapting the pace of work at school to the capabilities of each student, his abilities; the traditional organization of learning, in which the activity of teaching prevails over the activity of learning, is replaced by an organization where the central is the independent learning activity of students, and the functions of the teacher are reduced to the organization of this activity.

Classes are replaced by laboratories or subject workshops, lessons, as well as teacher explanations of new material, are cancelled. The student works individually in laboratories or workshops on the basis of a task received from the teacher and, if necessary, seeks help from the teacher who is constantly in this laboratory or workshop.

At the beginning school year students were given assignments for a year in each subject. Annual assignments were specified in lunar tasks and students reported on time.

Having received annual and monthly assignments, the students pledged in writing to complete them within the prescribed time limit. For successful academic work, students were provided with all the necessary teaching aids, instructions, and also used the advice of a specialist teacher in this academic subject.

There was no single class schedule for everyone. Collective work was carried out for one hour a day, the rest of the time - individual work in subject workshops, laboratories. In order to stimulate the work of students, to give them the opportunity to compare their achievements with the achievements of other students, the teacher specially compiled tables in which he monthly noted the progress of the students' tasks.

The Dalton plan was highly appreciated by famous American teachers - the Dewey spouses and quickly began to spread in the practice of schools in many countries. But he is not destined to take root in one country and the world.

So, in the USSR in the 20s, a modification of the Dalton plan was used under the name brigade-laboratory system. The tasks of studying the course, the topics were given to the teacher by a group of students (link), who worked independently in laboratories, at school sites, etc. The teacher also acted as a consultant. The form was not individual, but the so-called collective character and consisted in the fact that one student reported on behalf of the entire group (link). But this system soon proved to be ineffective. The level of training of students, their responsibility for learning outcomes decreased, since it was not possible for schoolchildren to cope with the tasks without an explanation from the teacher. All this led in 1932 to the refusal of the existence of this system of organization of education in the USSR.

D. Alton-plan gave rise to unhealthy rivalry among students, often requiring a large amount of time to complete assignments. All this led to the fact that in pedagogical reality it did not become widespread even during the period of its intensive popularization by J. Dewey, and then it was completely rejected. Trump.

The essence of Trump's plan as a system of organizational forms of learning is to maximize the stimulation of individual learning through the flexibility of its forms of organization. Such training combines classes in large classrooms, in small groups with individual lessons. Lectures using modern technical means (television, computers, etc.) for large groups of 100 - 1500 people are read by highly qualified teachers, professors. Small groups of 10 - 15 people discuss the material of the lecture, hold discussions. Here are additions to what was heard at the lecture. Classes in small groups are conducted either by ordinary teachers or the best students of the group. Individual work is carried out in school classrooms, laboratories. The time for conducting these types of classes is distributed as follows: 40% of the study time is allocated for lectures, 20% for classes in small groups, and 40% for individual work in classrooms and laboratories. Classes are being canceled, the composition of small groups is constantly changing. The system requires the coordinated work of teachers, a clear organization, material support.

Trump's plan has been widely recognized in the US thanks to heavy publicity. But a small number of experimental schools are now working behind this plan. Mass schools, on the other hand, use in their work only individual elements of this plan: training by a team of teachers, the use of teacher assistants who do not have teacher education, classes in large classrooms, organization independent work students in the classroom.

In the West, in the development of Trump's plan, "non-graded" classes are being supplemented: a student in one subject can study in the fifth grade program, and in another subject be in the third grade.

At present, attempts are being made to improve the classroom and other systems of organization of education, and the search for forms of education in the direction of individualization, technization of education is being carried out.

Such is the history of the development of organizational forms of learning. From this analysis of their development, it can be stated that the class-lesson system turned out to be the most stable and that it really is a valuable achievement of pedagogical thought and advanced practice in the work of a mass school.

by number of students

mass collective group individual

at the place of study

according to the duration of the lesson

Classic lesson (45 minutes)

Paired lesson (90 minutes)

Paired short session (70 minutes)

Lessons "without calls" of arbitrary duration

The emergence and development of the system of forms of education

Forms of education are dynamic, they arise, develop, are replaced by one another depending on the level of development of society, production, science.

Even in primitive society there was individual education system as the transfer of experience from the older generation to the younger.

This system was used in some countries in a later period. Its essence lies in the fact that the students were individually engaged in the house of a teacher or student. At present, such training has been preserved in the form of tutoring, tutoring, and tutoring.

However, a small number of students can be trained in this way. And the development of society required a large number of literate people.

The system of individual education has changed individual-group. The teacher worked with a group of children, but the educational work still had an individual character. The teacher in turn asked each student the material covered and separately explained the new material to each student. educational material.

Individual-group training, having undergone certain changes, has survived to this day. There are rural schools with a small number of students. In one class there can be, for example, 2-3 students of the first class and several people of the second class.

In the Middle Ages, education became more and more popular. There was an opportunity to select children of approximately the same age in groups. This led to the emergence classroom system learning. It originated in the 16th century, theoretically substantiated in the 17th century by Ya.A. Comenius and described by him in the book "Great Didactics".

Cool this system is called because the teacher conducts classes with a group of students of a certain age, which has a constant composition and is called a class. lesson plan- because the educational process is carried out in strictly defined periods of time - lessons.

After Ya.A. Comenius, a significant contribution to the development of the theory of the lesson was made by K.D. Ushinsky. He gave a deep scientific substantiation of many questions of the organization of the lesson.

Gradually, the class-lesson form of education took shape in a coherent system, for which the following:

Students of the same age are united in a permanent group - a class;

The class is taught according to a unified curriculum and unified curricula;

The lesson is the main form of organization educational process, has a certain structure;

The duration of the lesson is regulated by the Charter educational institution taking into account hygiene standards;

Established the simultaneous start of classes in the year and every day, the same pace of learning the material;

The work of students in the classroom is led by the teacher, he has a leading role.

Advantages class-lesson system of education:

ü allows you to systematically and consistently present the taught discipline;

ü allows you to apply a variety of methods and means of training;

ü allows you to combine individual, group, individual and collective forms of organization of educational activities;

ü allows you to systematically monitor the development of students, manage this process;

ü allows you to solve educational, upbringing and developmental tasks in a complex;

ü has a clear organizational structure;

ü provides a stimulating effect of the class team on the educational activities of each student;

ü allows the teacher to work simultaneously with a group of children (economical form)‏.

disadvantages class-lesson system of education:

ü The same pace and rhythm of work, focus on the "average student".

ü Limited communication between students.

ü The difficulty of taking into account the individual characteristics of students.

The class-lesson system has become widespread in all countries and, in its main features, has remained unchanged for about four hundred years.

At the end of the 18th century, the class-lesson system of education began to be criticized.

The first attempt to introduce a new system of organizing education was made at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century by the English priest A. Bell and the teacher J. Lancaster. New system was named bell lancaster system learning. Its essence lay in the fact that older students, under the guidance of a teacher, first studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught their younger comrades, which ultimately made it possible, with a small number of teachers, to carry out mass education of children. But the quality of education turned out to be low, and therefore the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely used.

Scientists and practitioners have made attempts to find such organizational forms of education that would remove the shortcomings of the lesson, in particular, its focus on the average student, insufficient development of cognitive activity and independence of students.

At the end of the 19th century, forms of selective education appeared - the Batov system (named after the city of Batavia) in the USA and Mannheim (named after the city of Mannheim) in Western Europe. Essence Batov system in the fact that the teacher's time was divided into two parts: the first was devoted to collective work with the class, and the second - to individual lessons with those students who needed such lessons. The teacher himself worked with students who wanted to deepen their knowledge, and with less capable students, his assistant.

Mannheim system characterized by the fact that, while maintaining the class-lesson system of education, students were distributed into different classes: classes for the most capable, classes for children with average abilities, classes for the incapacitated, auxiliary classes for the mentally retarded. It was assumed that students would be able to move from one class to another, but in practice this turned out to be impossible due to significant differences in educational programs.

In 1905, a system of individualized education arose, called dalton plan (named after the city of Dalton (USA).

Students in each subject received assignments for a year and reported on them in deadlines. Traditional classes in the form of lessons were canceled, there was no single class schedule for all. For successful work, students were supplied with all the necessary teaching aids, instructions. Collective work was carried out for one hour a day, the rest of the time the students spent in educational workshops and laboratories, where they studied individually. However, work experience has shown that most students were not able to study on their own, without the help of a teacher.

The Dalton plan served as a prototype for development in the USSR brigade-laboratory system learning that completely supplanted the lesson. Now the role of the teacher was reduced to the role of a consultant, which soon led to a significant decrease in academic performance, the lack of a system in knowledge and the lack of formation of the most important general educational skills. In 1932, training in this system ceased.

In the 20s of the 20th century, domestic schools also began to apply project method(project-based learning system), borrowed from the American school. The essence of this method is that school programs should be experimental activity child, connected with the reality surrounding him and based on his interests. Neither the state nor the teacher can work out in advance curriculum. It is created by children together with teachers in the learning process and is drawn from the surrounding reality. The main objective of the projects was to equip the child with tools for solving problems, searching and researching in life situations.

However, the refusal to systematically study academic subjects led to a decrease in the level of general education of children. This system is also not widely used.

In the 1960s, he became famous trump plan, named after its developer, American professor of pedagogy L. Trump. This form of organization of education involved a combination of classes in large classrooms (100-150 people) with classes in groups of 10-15 people and individual work of students. On the general lectures 40% of the time was devoted to in-depth study of individual sections and the development of skills (seminars) - 20%, and the rest of the time the students worked independently under the guidance of a teacher or his assistants from strong students. Classes under this system were abolished, the composition of small groups was unstable.

This system has also not found wide application.

Currently, the search for new forms of organization of training, their development and improvement is ongoing. At the same time, the class-lesson system of education remains the most stable and widespread in school practice.

Similar information.

The history of world pedagogical thought and teaching practice knows a wide variety of forms of organization of learning. Their emergence, development, improvement and gradual death of some of them are connected with the requirements and needs of a developing society. Each new historical stage in the development of society leaves its mark on the organization of education. As a result pedagogical science accumulated significant empirical material in this area. The question arose about the need to systematize the diversity of forms of organization of education, to isolate the most effective, corresponding to the spirit of the times, the historical era.

In this regard, scientists have identified such grounds for classifying the forms of organization of education: the number and composition of students, the place of study, the duration of educational work. For these reasons, the forms of education are divided into individual, individual-group, collective, classroom and extracurricular, school and extracurricular, respectively. Note that this classification is not strictly scientific and is by no means recognized by all scientists and educators. At the same time, it must be admitted that such an approach to the classification of forms of organization of education allows us to slightly streamline their diversity.

The oldest form of the educational process, originating in ancient times, is an individual form of education. Its essence lies in the fact that students perform tasks individually, in the house of a teacher or student. The help of the teacher acted either directly or indirectly, provided to the student through the study of a textbook, the author of which was the teacher himself. At-

tutoring is a measure of direct and individual contacts between a teacher and a student in modern conditions.

The individual form of organization of education was the only one in ancient times, during the Middle Ages, and in some countries it was widely used until the 18th century. In the subsequent periods of the development of society, it dominated the practice of family education of wealthy strata of society (for example, in noble families, in wealthy families, and other strata of society).

What are the advantages and disadvantages of this form of organization of education, which, on the one hand, served as the basis for the fact that in the form of tutoring it has been preserved in our time, and, on the other hand, already in the 17th century, on a massive scale, gave way to new forms of organization of educational process?

The main advantage of individual learning is that it allows you to completely individualize the content, methods and pace of the child's educational activity, to monitor each of his actions and operations in solving specific problems; monitor his progress from ignorance to knowledge, make the necessary corrections in time both in the activities of the student and in the teacher's own activities, adapt them to the constantly changing, but controlled situation on the part of the teacher and the student. All this allows the student to work economically, constantly control the expenditure of his forces, work at the optimal time for himself, which, of course, allows him to achieve high learning results. Of course, individual learning presupposes the presence of a teacher with high pedagogical qualifications.

However, along with the listed advantages, individual training also suffers from a number of disadvantages, for which it was sharply criticized already in the 16th century. These shortcomings include, first of all, its uneconomical nature, some limited influence of the teacher, caused by the fact that, as a rule, the function of the teacher was reduced to giving the task to the student and checking its implementation. The disadvantage is also the limited cooperation with other students, which adversely affected the process of socialization of the student, the formation of the ability to work in a team. That is why the importance of individual learning, already from the 16th century,

steadily decreases and gradually gives way to an individual-group form of organization of the educational process.

The essence of this form lies in the fact that the teacher no longer conducts classes with one student, but with a whole group of children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different. Because of this, the teacher academic work with each student separately. He in turn asked each student the material covered, explained to each separately new material gave individual assignments. The rest of the students were minding their own business. This allowed students to come to school at different times - at the beginning, middle and even at the end of the school year and at any time of the day.

As early as the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, both individual and individual-group forms of organizing education did not satisfy the needs of society, both in quantitative and qualitative terms, in preparing the younger generations to participate in solving socially significant problems. The vast majority of children remained uncovered by education, and those who were covered by it acquired only the simplest skills of reading, writing, counting.

At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, there was a surge of new educational needs in Europe. They are caused by the development of various industries, crafts and trade, the increasing role of spiritual life - a revival in literature, art, architecture, and science. All this led to the emergence of mass education of children. The concept of collective learning arose, which was first applied in the fraternal schools of Belarus and Ukraine (XVI century) and became the embryo of the class-lesson system of education. Theoretically, this system was substantiated and widely popularized in the 17th century by Jan Amos Komensky. At present, this form of organization of education, which has undergone significant modification and modernization, is predominant in the schools of the world, despite the fact that the class and lesson as didactic concepts are already more than 350 years old.

What is the essence of the class-lesson system as a specific form of organization of educational work? The answer to this question is contained in the features that are inherent in this system. The most important of them are:

Students of approximately the same age and level of training make up a class that retains a largely constant composition for the entire period of schooling;

the class works according to a single annual plan and program according to a regular schedule. As a result, children must come to school at the same time of the year and at predetermined hours of the day;

the basic unit of lessons is the lesson;

the lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one subject, topic, due to which the students of the class work on the same material;

the work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher, he evaluates the results of study in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year decides to transfer students to the next class.

The school year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks or, more precisely, breaks between lessons, these are also signs of a class-lesson system.

The class-lesson system of education from the day of its justification to the present time has occupied the minds of scientists and educators around the world. It has been subjected to a detailed analysis and description, with all its advantages and disadvantages, in numerous fundamental works on didactics and methods of teaching individual subjects, as well as in works on educational psychology. The authors of these works agree that the class-lesson system of education has a number of advantages over individual education.

Its advantages are: a clear organizational structure that ensures the orderliness of the entire educational process; easy management; the possibility of children interacting with each other in the process of collective discussion of problems, collective search for solutions to problems; i% constant emotional impact of the teacher's personality on students, their upbringing in the learning process; cost-effectiveness of education, since the teacher works simultaneously with a sufficiently large group of students, creates conditions for introducing a competitive spirit into the educational activities of schoolchildren and at the same time ensures systematicity and consistency in their movement from ignorance to knowledge.

teachers have difficulties in taking into account the individual characteristics of students in organizational and individual work with them both in terms of content, and in terms of the pace and methods of teaching; does not provide organized communication between older and younger students, etc. Work at an imposed pace, - E. Parkhurst noted in her critical remarks about the class-lesson system, - is bondage, it is the deprivation of the student of the freedom to work in accordance with his abilities. The class-lesson system, as Ch. Kupisevich rightly notes, imposes an artificial organization of work on students, forces them to change subjects frequently for short periods of time, as a result of which students cannot complete the work they have begun, think it over, deepen their knowledge. The bell, this typical attribute of the classroom system, not only determines the time for children to work and rest, but also measures the time at the end of the year for which they must be able to report on their progress for the whole year of study. As a result, some students are promoted to the next grade, while others - albeit weak in only one subject - remain in the second year, although with better organization of work they could successfully fill in the gaps. Much of the repetition is also due to the cruelty of the weekly school schedule, which imposes the same pace of work on all children, regardless of their abilities.

Undoubtedly, critical statements about the class-lesson system, which have especially intensified since the end of the last century, are fundamentally fair and have served as the basis for numerous searches for both pedagogy theorists and practicing teachers, on the one hand, new teaching systems, on the other hand, ways to improve, modification and modernization of the class-lesson system of organization of education in accordance with the new requirements of a developing society and the achievements of psychological and pedagogical science.

The first attempt to modernize the class-lesson system of organization of education was made at the end of the 18th century. -early XIX centuries English priest A. Bell and teacher J. Lancastor. The impetus for this was the transition from manufactory to a large-scale machine industry, which required a large number of workers with at least elementary literacy. For their preparation it is necessary

It was necessary to increase the number of schools and, consequently, the contingent of teachers who would teach a significantly larger number of students. This is how a modified class-lesson system of organization of learning called the Bell-Lancaster system of mutual learning arose, named after its founders and applied by the indicated authors in England and India. The essence of this system was that older students, under the guidance of a teacher, first studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught those who knew less. This allowed one teacher to teach many children at once, to carry out their mass education, but the very quality of this education was extremely low. This explains why the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely adopted.

At the end of XIX - at the beginning of XX centuries. Particularly relevant in the further development of organizational forms of education is the issue of individualizing the education of students with differences in their mental development. Appropriate forms of selective education also appear. In the USA, the so-called BATOVSKY SYSTEM was founded, which was divided into two parts. The first part is lesson work with the class as a whole, and the second is individual lessons with those students who needed such lessons; either in order to keep up with generally accepted norms, or with those who expressed a desire to deepen their knowledge, i.e. with those who were distinguished by comparatively developed abilities. The teacher worked with the last category, and the teacher's assistant worked with students who were less capable and lagging behind. At the same time, the so-called Macnheim system began to be created in Europe.

The Mannheim system, named after the city of Mannheim, where it was first applied, is characterized by the fact that while maintaining the class-lesson system of organizing education, students, depending on their abilities, level of intellectual development and degree of preparation, were divided into classes into weak, medium and strong.

The founder of this system, Josef Zikkenger (1858-1930), suggested creating four classes according to the abilities of students:

1. Main classes - for children with average abilities. 2. Classes for students with low ability who "usually don't finish school". 3. Auxiliary classes - for mentally retarded children. 4. Foreign language classes or "transitional" classes for the most capable students who can continue their studies in secondary schools. Class selection was based on the results of psychometric surveys, teacher characteristics and examinations. Zikkenger believed that, depending on the success of students, they would be able to move from one sequence of classes to another, but this almost never happened, since the system did not allow weak students to reach a high level. Program differences in these classes did not contribute to the creation of real conditions for such transitions.

The Mannheim system of education had many adherents, especially in Germany in the period leading up to the First World War. Some provisions of this system were positively received in France, Russia, the USA, Belgium and other countries of the world. Elements of this system have been preserved today in the practice of the modern school in Australia, the USA and England. So, in Australia there are classes for more and less able students; in the USA, classes are practiced for slow learners and capable students; in England, the Mannheim system serves as the basis for the creation of schools, the contingent of students of which is completed on the basis of testing primary school graduates.

On the whole, the theoretical postulates of this system are now subjected to universally fair criticism, it is emphasized that it is built on an erroneous idea of the decisive influence of biopsychological factors on the final results of student development; that it belittles the influence of purposeful educational activities on the formation of the student's personality, undermines the possibility of developing his socially determined needs and interests. Because of this, Zikkenger's concept and the Mannheim system of organization of education founded by him, which implies the individualization of education based on differences in the level of intellectual development of students, turned out to be clearly untenable, if taken as a whole. The only element of this system, acceptable features

modern development of psychological and pedagogical science and practice of advanced schools, is the so-called specialized education. In real pedagogical reality, it is embodied in the form of specialized schools for exceptionally gifted children who show the ability to study in depth the subjects of certain areas of knowledge - humanitarian, mathematical, etc.

In Europe and the United States at the beginning of the 20th century, many training systems were tested aimed at providing individual active independent educational work for schoolchildren. The most radical of these was the system of individualized learning, pioneered by the teacher Helena Parkhurst in the first decade of the 20th century. in Dalton, Massachusetts. This system entered the history of pedagogy and school under the name of the Dalton plan. It is also often referred to as a laboratory or workshop system.

The pedagogical credo of the author of this system, E. Parkhurst, boiled down to the following: the success of educational activity depends on adapting the pace of work at school to the capabilities of each student, his abilities; the traditional organization of learning, in which the activity of teaching prevails over the activity of learning, is being replaced by an organization where the independent learning activity of students is central, and the functions of the teacher are reduced only to the tactful organization of this activity. In this regard, classes as such are replaced by laboratories or subject workshops, lessons are canceled, teacher explanations of new material are cancelled. The student is engaged in laboratories or workshops individually on the basis of the assignment received from the teacher and, if necessary, seeks help from the teacher, who is constantly in these laboratories and workshops.

Assignments were given to students for a year at the very beginning of the academic year in each subject. The yearly assignments were then fleshed out into monthly assignments and the students reported on them within the set deadlines.

Having received annual and monthly assignments, the students pledged in writing to complete them within the specified time frame. For successful academic work, students were supplied with all the necessary teaching aids, instructions, which contained methodological instructions regarding

how to complete the assignments, as well as consulted a specialist teacher in the subject. There was no single class schedule for everyone. Collective work was carried out one hour a day, the rest of the time - individual work in subject workshops, laboratories. In order to stimulate the work of students, to give them the opportunity to compare their achievements with the achievements of other students, the teacher compiled special tables in which he monthly noted the progress of the students in completing the assigned tasks.

The Dalton plan was highly appreciated by prominent American teachers - the Dewey spouses and quickly began to spread in the practice of schools in many countries, but it was not possible for him to take root in any country in the world.

So, in the USSR in the 1920s, a modification of the Dalton Plan was used under the name of the brigade-laboratory system. Tasks for studying the course, topics were taken by a group of students (team). They worked independently in laboratories and with the advice of a teacher, reported collectively. However, very soon the applied system demonstrated its inconsistency. The level of training of students was steadily declining, their responsibility for the results of learning fell, primarily because they were unable to cope with the tasks without an explanation from the teacher. All this led to the fact that the existence of this system of organization of education in the USSR ceased in 1932.

Does this mean that the Dalton plan was devoid of individual merits? Not! Its merits include, first of all, the fact that it made it possible to adapt the pace of learning to the real abilities of students, accustomed them to independence, developed initiative, involved them in the search for rational methods of work, etc. But, as the great Russian teacher K. D. Ushinsky, - an empty head does not think. And the Dalton plan contributed little to the systematic mastery of the system of knowledge by students. They were fragmentary, they did not cover the entire volume of necessary and sufficient information about nature, society, technology and culture. In addition, the Dalton Plan created unhealthy competition among students, often leading to a lot of time spent on assignments. All this led to the fact that in pedagogical reality it was not widely used even during the period of its intensive popularization by J. Dewey, and subsequently was completely abandoned.

The essence of the Trump plan as a system of organizational forms of learning is to maximize the stimulation of individual learning through the flexibility of its forms of organization. With such training, classes are combined in large classrooms, in small groups with individual lessons. Lectures using modern technical means (television, computers, etc.) for large groups of 100-150 people are read by highly qualified teachers and professors. Small groups of 10-15 people discuss lecture materials, lead discussions. Here are additions to what was heard at the lecture. Classes in small groups are conducted either by an ordinary teacher or the best student from the group. Individual work is carried out in school classrooms, laboratories. The time for conducting the indicated types of classes is distributed as follows: 40% of the study time is allocated to lectures; for classes in small groups - 20%, for individual work in offices and laboratories - 40%. Classes as such are abolished, the composition of small groups is unstable, it is constantly changing. The system requires the coordinated work of teachers, a clear organization, material support.

Trump's plan has been widely publicized in the United States thanks to heavy publicity. Nevertheless, a small number of experimental schools are currently operating under this plan. Mass schools, on the other hand, use only individual elements of this plan in their work: training by a team of teachers, the use of assistant teachers who do not have a pedagogical education, classes in large classrooms, and the organization of independent work of students in classrooms.

In the West, in the development of Trump's plan, there are "ungraded classes": a student in one subject can study in the fifth grade program, and in another subject be in the third grade. There are projects and experiments are underway to create "open schools": training takes place in training centers with libraries, workshops, which leads to the destruction of the very institution "school".

At present, everywhere, as we see, there are attempts to improve the classroom and other systems of organization of education, searches are being made for forms of education in the direction of individualization, technization of education. Such is the history of the development of organizational forms of learning.

From this cursory historical analysis of their development, it can be stated that the class-lesson system turned out to be the most stable and that it really is a valuable achievement of pedagogical thought and advanced practice in the work of a mass school. Its advantages over other education systems are manifested primarily in the fact that with the mass enrollment of children school age training sessions the class-lesson system ensures the organizational clarity and continuity of the work of students and the stimulating influence of the class team on the educational activities of each student; implies a close connection between the compulsory educational and extracurricular work of schoolchildren; provides the possibility of combining mass, group and individual forms of educational work; it is, as already mentioned above, economical, especially in comparison with individual training.

At the same time, we should not forget that what is justified does not remain unchanged forever, that there are no shortcomings in it. The fact that the class-lesson system, being one of the most advanced, contains a number of shortcomings that need to be eliminated, is evidenced by the numerous statements of academic teachers and practicing teachers about the need to improve education both in general education and in the system of professional education. -technical education. In particular, it is noted that the school does not fully use the great opportunities of the lesson in organizing the educational work of students, in educating the ideological and moral qualities of schoolchildren, preparing them for life, work, work. professional activity and others. At the same time, it is indicated that the main reason for this is the lack of development of the theory of organizational forms of education, especially the lesson as the main form of organization of the educational process in the class-lesson system of education.

The class-lesson system of education includes, along with the lesson, a whole range of forms of organization of educational

process. These include: lectures, seminars, excursions, classes in educational workshops, workshops, forms of labor and industrial training, interviews, consultations, exams, tests, forms of extracurricular work (subject circles, studios, scientific societies, olympiads, competitions), etc. Within the framework of these forms of education, collective, group, individual, frontal work of students of both a differentiated and undifferentiated nature can be organized. When the same task is given to the whole class (written work, laboratory or even practical task workshops), then it will be undifferentiated individual work of a frontal nature, and when the class as a whole or each group individually solves one problem collectively, jointly masters common theme, then collective, frontal or group work appears here.

The most important feature of the above forms of organization of education is that the student learns to work on any of them: listen, discuss issues in teamwork, concentrate and organize their work, express their opinions, listen to others, refute their arguments or agree with them, argue one's own evidence, supplementing others', making notes, arranging the texts of reports, compiling a bibliography, working with sources of knowledge, organizing one's workplace, planning one's actions, keeping within the allotted time, etc.

At group work schoolchildren learn the elements of the organizational activity of a leader, employee, subordinate, form the experience of entering into contacts with the environment of adults - in natural business, industrial and social relations, adapting to the production, life rhythm. An important role is played by organizational forms of education in the education of students, where the main character is self-government by the individual.

What are the didactic foundations of various organizational forms of education? What is their share in the holistic learning process? We will devote the next chapter to these questions.

Questions and tasks for self-control

Highlight the main features that characterize the form of organization of training. Give a definition of the concept "form of organization of learning".

Determine the factors influencing the choice of organizational forms of training.

Describe the features of the class-lesson teaching system, its advantages and disadvantages, its advantages over other systems.

What are the features of the Mannheim system, the Dalton plan, the Trump plan. Discuss with your colleagues their advantages, disadvantages, and the possibility of using them in a modern domestic school.

Literature for independent work.

Kupisevich Ch. Fundamentals of general didactics. M., 1986 Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy. M, 1990

Cheredov I.M. The system of forms of organization of education in the Soviet general education school. M., 1987.

One of the elements of the pedagogical system is organizational forms of education. This category denotes the external side of the organization of the learning process, which determines when, where, who and how is trained. Under forms of education means of organizing the joint activities of the teacher and students in mastering the program material, proceeding in a special mode with a certain number of students.

Scientists single out the following grounds for classifying the forms of education: the number and composition of students, the place of study, the duration of study work. For these reasons, the forms of education are divided into individual, group and collective; classroom and extracurricular; school and extracurricular. This classification is not strictly scientific, but allows some ordering of their diversity.

In the history of pedagogy, there were various forms learning. Even in primitive society took shape system of individual training and education as the transfer of experience from one person to another, from older to younger. This form was used in ancient times, during the Middle Ages, and in some countries it was used until the beginning of the 18th century. Its essence was that the students were individually engaged in the house of a teacher or student. The help of the teacher was either directly or indirectly, when the student independently studied the material of the textbook. in different historical periods development of civilization, an individual form of education dominated the practice of family education of wealthy sections of society.

Since the 16th century, the importance of the individual form of education has been steadily declining, and it is gradually giving way to individual-group form of organization of the educational process. With individual-group teaching, the teacher worked with a whole group of children, but the educational work still had an individual character. The teacher taught 10-15 children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different. He in turn asked each student the material covered, also separately explained the new educational material to each, gave individual tasks. The rest of the students were minding their own business. This allowed students to come to school at different times of the year and at any time of the day. It is extremely rare for a teacher to gather all the students in his group for group discussions.

As early as the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries, both individual and individual-group forms of organizing education did not satisfy the needs of society in the education of the younger generations. A more perfect organizational design of the educational process is reflected in concepts of class-lesson system of education, scientifically substantiated in the 17th century by Ya.A. Comenius. For the first time it was applied in the fraternal schools of Ukraine and Belarus in the 16th century. After Comenius, his classical teaching was developed by K.D. Ushinsky, F.A. Diesterweg and other teachers. At present, this system of education is predominant in the schools of the world. Nevertheless, repeated attempts were made to modernize the classroom system.

The first such attempt was made in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. English priest A. Bell and teacher J. Lancaster. The new system is called bell lancaster and was simultaneously applied in India and England. This system covered simultaneously 600 and even more students. Its essence lay in the fact that older students, under the guidance of a teacher, first studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught their younger comrades, which ultimately made it possible, with a small number of teachers, to carry out mass education of children. But the very quality of education remained extremely low and therefore the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely used.

At the end of the 19th century, the so-called forms of selective education appeared - Batavian system in the USA and Mannheim in Western Europe. The essence of the first of them was that the teacher's time was divided into two parts: the first was assigned to collective work with the class, and the second - to individual lessons with those students who needed such lessons. The teacher himself worked with the successful students, his assistant worked with the lagging ones.

The Mannheim system, named after the name of the city where it was first applied, is characterized by the fact that while maintaining the class-lesson system of education, students, depending on their abilities, level of intellectual development and degree of preparation, were divided into classes into strong, medium and weak.

In 1905, a system of individualized education arose, first applied by the teacher Helena Parkhurst in Dalton, Massachusetts. This system is often referred to as laboratory or workshop system. Traditional classes in the form of lessons were canceled, students received written assignments, and after consultation with teachers, they worked on them independently according to an individual plan. For successful work, students were supplied with all the necessary teaching aids, instructions, which contained methodological instructions. There was no single class schedule for everyone. Collective work was carried out for one hour a day, the rest of the time the students spent in subject workshops and laboratories, where they studied individually.

In the 20s. in the USSR, a modification of the Dalton plan was used called brigade-laboratory system, which superseded the lesson. Tasks for studying a course or topic were taken by a group of students (team). They worked independently in laboratories and with the advice of a teacher, reported collectively. At the final conferences, the foreman, on behalf of the brigade, reported on the execution of the task, which, as a rule, was performed by a group of activists, while the rest were present. Marks were exhibited the same for all members of the brigade. In 1932, training in this system in the USSR ceased.

In the 50-60s. of the last century, the pedagogical project of the American professor Lloyd Trump was developed and gained great fame (Trump plan). This form of organization involved a combination of classes in large classrooms (100-150 people) with classes in groups of 10-15 people and individual work of students. 40% of the time was allotted for general lectures using a variety of technical teaching aids, 20% for discussion of lecture material and in-depth study of individual sections of the course in small groups, and 40% for individual work. Classes under this system were abolished, the composition of small groups was unstable.

Currently, an intensive search is underway for the modernization of organizational forms of education. However, the main form of education is still the lesson. It is organically complemented by other forms of organization of training. Some of them developed within the framework of the class-lesson system of education ( excursions, consultations, homework, training conferences, additional classes, electives), others are borrowed from the lecture-seminar system and adapted to the age of the students ( school lectures, seminars, tests, exams, workshops).

Similar information.

Forms of organization of education in the history of education

The history of world pedagogical thought and teaching practice knows a wide variety of forms of organization of learning. Their emergence, development, improvement and gradual death of some of them are connected with the requirements and needs of a developing society. Each new historical stage in the development of society leaves its mark on the organization of education. As a result, pedagogical science has accumulated significant empirical material in this area. The question arose about the need to systematize the diversity of forms of organization of education, to isolate the most effective, corresponding to the spirit of the times, the historical era.

The individual form of organization of education was the only one in ancient times, during the Middle Ages, and in some countries it was widely used until the 18th century. In subsequent periods of the development of society, it dominated the practice of family education of wealthy sections of society (for example, in noble families, in wealthy families, and other sections of society).

The essence of this form lies in the fact that the teacher no longer conducts classes with one student, but with a whole group of children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different. Because of this, the teacher conducted educational work with each student separately. He asked each student in turn what they had learned, explained new material to each student individually, and gave individual assignments. The rest of the students were minding their own business. This allowed students to come to school at different times - at the beginning, middle and even at the end of the school year and at any time of the day.

As early as the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, both individual and individual-group forms of organization of education did not satisfy the needs of society, both in quantitative and qualitative terms, in preparing the younger generations to participate in solving socially significant problems. The vast majority of children remained uncovered by education, and those who were covered by it acquired only the simplest skills of reading, writing, counting.

At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, there was a surge of new educational needs in Europe. They are caused by the development of various industries, crafts and trade, the increasing role of spiritual life - a revival in literature, art, architecture, and science. All this led to the emergence of mass education of children. The concept of collective learning arose, which was first applied in fraternal schools in Belarus and Ukraine (XVI century) and became the embryo of a class-lesson teaching system. Theoretically, this system was substantiated and widely popularized in the 17th century by Jan Amos Comenius. At present, this form of organization of education, which has undergone significant modification and modernization, is predominant in the schools of the world, despite the fact that the class and lesson as didactic concepts are already more than 350 years old.

students of approximately the same age and level of training make up a class that retains a basically constant composition for the entire period of schooling;

the basic unit of lessons is the lesson;

the lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one subject, topic, due to which the students of the class work on the same material;

The school year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks or, more precisely, breaks between lessons, these are also signs of a class-lesson system.

Its advantages are: a clear organizational structure that ensures the orderliness of the entire educational process; easy management; the possibility of children interacting with each other in the process of collective discussion of problems, collective search for solutions to problems; the constant emotional impact of the teacher's personality on students, their upbringing in the learning process; cost-effectiveness of education, since the teacher works simultaneously with a sufficiently large group of students, creates conditions for introducing a competitive spirit into the educational activities of schoolchildren and at the same time ensures systematicity and consistency in their movement from ignorance to knowledge.

Noting these advantages, it is impossible not to see a number of significant shortcomings in this sh-stema, namely: the class-lesson system is focused mainly on the average student, creates overwhelming difficulties for the weak and delays the development of abilities for the stronger; creates for
teachers have difficulties in taking into account the individual characteristics of students in organizational and individual work with them both in terms of content, and in terms of the pace and methods of teaching; does not provide organized communication between older and younger students, etc. Work at an imposed pace, - E. Parkhurst noted in her critical remarks about the classroom
o-lesson system - this is captivity, this is the deprivation of the student's freedom to work in accordance with his abilities. The class-lesson system, as Ch. Kupisevich rightly notes, imposes an artificial organization of work on students, forces them to change subjects frequently for short periods of time, as a result of which students cannot complete the work they have begun, think it over, deepen their knowledge. The bell, this typical attribute of the classroom system, not only determines the time for children to work and rest, but also measures the time at the end of the year for which they must be able to report on their progress for the whole year of study. As a result, some students are promoted to the next grade, while others - albeit weak in only one subject - remain in the second year, although with better organization of work they could successfully fill in the gaps. Much of the repetition is also due to the cruelty of the weekly school schedule, which imposes the same pace of work on all children, regardless of their abilities.

The first attempt to modernize the class-lesson system of organization of education was made at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. English priest A. Bell and teacher J. Lancastor. The impetus for this was the transition from manufactory to a large-scale machine industry, which required a large number of workers with at least elementary literacy. To prepare them, it was necessary to increase the number of schools, and, consequently, the contingent of teachers who would teach a significantly larger number of students. This is how a modified class-lesson system of organization of learning called the Bell-Lancaster system of mutual learning arose, named after its founders and applied by the indicated authors in England and India. The essence of this system was that older students, under the guidance of a teacher, first studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught those who knew less. This allowed one teacher to teach many children at once, to carry out their mass education, but the very quality of this education was extremely low. This explains why the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely adopted.

The Mannheim system, named after the city of Mannheim, where it was first applied, is characterized by the fact that while maintaining the class-lesson system of organizing education, students, depending on their abilities, level of intellectual development and degree of preparation, were divided into classes into weak, medium and strong.

The founder of this system, Josef Zikkenger (1858-1930), suggested creating four classes according to the abilities of students:
1. Main classes - for children with average abilities. 2. Classes for students with low ability who "usually don't finish school". 3. Auxiliary classes - for mentally retarded children. 4. Foreign language classes or "transitional" classes for the most capable students who can continue their studies in secondary schools. Class selection was based on the results of psychometric surveys, teacher characteristics and examinations. Zikkenger believed that, depending on the success of students, they would be able to move from one sequence of classes to another, but this almost never happened, since the system did not allow weak students to reach a high level. Program differences in these classes did not contribute to the creation of real conditions for such transitions.

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