1. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: SUBJECT OF STUDY, TASKS Since ancient times, the needs of social life forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. The idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body, which was put forward by the great philosopher Aristotle in

SCIENCE AND TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY Ken Wilber Perhaps the most important issue facing transpersonal psychology today is its relationship to empirical science. Neither the field of activity of transpersonal psychology, nor its main subject, nor its

Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Priazovsky State Technical University

Department of Sociology and Social Work

V.V. Maslova

Abstract of lectures on the discipline

"Psychology"

for full-time and part-time students

technical specialties

Mariupol 2009

Psychology. Lecture notes for full-time and part-time students of technical specialties. / PSTU. Dept. Sociology and Social Work, IAP; comp. V.V. Maslova. - Mariupol. 2009. - 92 p.

Tutorial prepared in accordance with state requirements for the mandatory minimum content and level of training of graduates high school on the cycle "Social and humanitarian disciplines". The proposed course of lectures presents the basic psychological concepts and categories, as well as their characteristics. Particular attention is paid to the psychology of personality; the psychological mechanisms of personality formation and its interaction with other people are revealed.

Designed for students of technical specialties.

Reviewer: M.D. Lapina, st.pr.

Comp. V.V. Maslova, st.pr.

Responsible for the issue: V.V. Kharabet, Associate Professor, Ph.D.,

Head of the Department of Sociology and

social work

Approved

At a meeting of the department

"Sociology and social work"

Minutes No. 3 dated 16.10.2009

Approved

At a meeting of the Academic Council

Engineering and Pedagogical Faculty

Protocol No. 2009

introduction

Peculiarities modern stage development of our society determine the need for a radical improvement in the training of specialists, their mastery of the basics of psychological knowledge and their successful application in practice.

The textbook has been prepared for a wide range of students, regardless of professional direction and specialty, is intended for concentrated study and systematization of educational material in the discipline "Psychology".

The manual is a compact essay on the theory and practice of psychology. Educational material manuals are deprofessionalized, presented in a concise and accessible form, both in content and in style of presentation.

Goals and objectives of studying the discipline "Psychology":

Get an idea about the nature of the human psyche, about the ratio of natural and social factors in its formation, as well as about how a person realizes the world around him and himself;

Learn to give a psychological characteristic of a person, as well as to explain their own mental processes, properties, states;

To master the simplest methods of their mental self-regulation;

To learn to be aware of the peculiarities of the interaction of people in the process of communication and joint activities;

Learn techniques to improve communication efficiency.

The sequence of presentation of topics in the proposed course of lectures reflects the logic of the future specialist's perception of a new range of problems. The manual includes five topics, relatively independent in content, but interconnected.

For the convenience of mastering the course, each of the program topics is divided into several relatively independent questions, which can become the subject of presentations at seminars, serve as the topic of essays.

The range of problems considered in the proposed course of lectures is specified in the list of skills that precedes each topic.

A conscious and deeper assimilation of the material will be facilitated by the search for answers to control questions and tasks proposed for each topic. In this case, it is advisable to use the sources given in the lists of references for each topic.

LECTURE 1

^ INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

1. Subject, principles and branches of psychology.

2. Stages of formation and directions of psychological science.

3. Methods of psychological research.

4. The concept of the psyche. Classification of mental phenomena.

5. Consciousness as the highest stage in the development of the psyche.

6. Special states of the human psyche and consciousness.

Basic concepts : psychology, principles of psychology, directions of psychology, methods of psychology, mental phenomena, consciousness, conscious, subconscious, unconscious.

After studying this topic, you should be able to:

Formulate the subject and tasks of psychology as a science;

Explain the methodological principles of psychology;

Highlight the main stages in the development of psychological science;

Reveal the place of psychology in the system of human sciences;

List the branches and main directions of psychological science;

Analyze the methods of psychology and the conditions for their correct application;

Reveal the essence of the concept of the psyche, list the main forms of manifestation of the psyche;

Explain the relationship between the conscious, subconscious and unconscious.

^ 1. Subject, principles and branches of psychology

Psychology - the science of the general mental patterns of human interaction with the environment. Psychology (psyche - soul, logos - science) - studies the world of mental phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious by a person.

Generally methodology (from the Greek methods - the path of research, knowledge, logos - teaching) defines the principles, techniques that guide a person in his activities. Domestic psychology distinguishes the following as methodological principles of materialistic psychology:

1) The principle of determinism means that the psyche is determined by the way of life and is rebuilt with a change in the way of life.

^ 2) The principle of the relationship between the psyche and activity , the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means that consciousness is manifested and formed in the process of carrying out human activity.

^ 3) The principle of the development of the psyche, consciousness in activity means that the psyche and consciousness are considered as a product of development and the result of activity (game, educational, labor, etc.).

^ 4) The principle of studying the human psyche in the relationship of biological and social factors ;

5) Personal approach means that when studying any mental phenomena of a person (properties, states, processes), the inclusion of the phenomenon in the structure of a holistic personality is taken into account.

Psychology is closely interconnected with other sciences, occupying an important place in the system of human sciences. So, for a long time, being one of the sections philosophy, psychology inevitably took from this science fundamentally important theoretical provisions that determine the approach to solving problems. Thus, philosophy is the methodological basis of psychology. There is an obvious connection between psychology and natural sciences- biology, physiology, chemistry, physics, etc., with the help of which one can study the physiological and biological processes of the brain that underlie the psyche. Psychology is closer to humanities(sociology, history, linguistics, art history, etc.) the study of the interaction of the individual and his immediate environment; interest in the peculiarities of the mental, spiritual make-up of a person in various historical eras; the role of language in the cultural and mental development of a person, the problem of creativity. The link between psychology and pedagogy. It is possible to effectively teach and educate only on the basis of knowledge of the laws by which the human psyche develops. The links between psychology and medicine. These sciences find common points of contact in the study of the problem of mental disorders, in the psychological substantiation of the characteristics of the interaction between the doctor and the patient, in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of diseases. The relationship between psychology and technical sciences manifests itself, on the one hand, in identifying the optimal psychological conditions for the interaction of man and machine, on the other hand, in the development of technical means, instruments for studying the manifestations of the psyche.

^ Branches of psychology

Zoopsychology- studies the features of the psyche of animals.

Age and pedagogical psychology - studies psychological features people of different ages, as well as patterns of personality development in the process of training and education

^ Social Psychology - studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationships with people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups.

^ Labor psychology - examines the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, patterns of development of labor skills.

Engineering psychology- studies the regularities of the processes of interaction between man and modern technology.

^ medical psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor's activity and the patient's behavior, develops psychological methods treatment and psychotherapy

pathopsychology- studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the disintegration of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology.

^ legal psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in the criminal process, the psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the personality of the offender.

^ Psychology differentiation on the industry is complemented by counter integration process, as a result of which there is a docking of psychology with almost all sciences: through engineering psychology - with the technical sciences; through pedagogical psychology - with pedagogy; through social psychology - with the social and social sciences.

^ 2. Stages of formation and direction

psychological science

The development of psychological science can be roughly divided into 4 stage:

Stage 1- Psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than 2 thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.

Stage 2- Psychology as the science of consciousness. Arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness.

Stage 3- psychology as a science of behavior. Arises in the late 19th - early 20th century. The task of psychology is to experiment and observe what can be seen - behavior, actions, reactions of a person.

Stage 4- psychology as a science that studies the patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

Since ancient times, the needs of social life forced a person to take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. The first psychological ideas emerged in the ancient world in connection with the attempts of the thinkers of that time to answer the question: what is the soul? At the same time, different approaches to the study of the essence of the soul were distinguished - materialistic and idealistic.

Proponent of the first approach Democritus(c. 460-370 BC) argued that the soul is composed of mobile atoms that set the body in motion. With the death of the body, the soul also dies.

Plato(428-348 BC), on the contrary, argued that the soul is immortal. The goal of the soul is the knowledge of ideas that exist eternally and by themselves, forming a special world that opposes the world of matter.

The ideas of ancient philosophers were systematized and developed Aristotle(384-322 BC) in the treatise "On the Soul". This treatise was the first proper psychological work, in connection with which Aristotle is often called the founder of psychology. In his view, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living body, through which a person feels and thinks.

In the Middle Ages, as a result of the strengthening of the positions of religion, the soul is seen mainly as a divine, supernatural principle that guides a person in his search for a higher meaning of life. At the same time, knowledge is being accumulated about the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the human body as one of the foundations of the psyche. In this regard, the activities of Arab scientists should be especially noted. Ibn-Siny(Avicenna, 980-1037), Ibn Rushda(Averroes, 1126-1198), as well as an outstanding figure of the Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).

The second stage in the development of psychology is associated with the development of the natural sciences in the 17th century, when the leading scientists of that time tried to form new ideas about the world and man, considering psychology as a science of consciousness. For example, the French scientist R. Descartes(1596-1650) in his writings made an attempt to reveal the mechanisms of human behavior, using the laws of mechanics as an analogue and introducing a new concept - a reflex. B. Spinoza(1632-1677) and G. Leibniz(1646-1716), who developed questions about the relationship between the physiological and mental, as well as J. Locke(1632-1704), who introduced the concept of association into psychology (from Latin associatio - connection, bundle) - a connection between phenomena, in which the occurrence of one of them causes the appearance of another. It was this concept that formed the basis of the associative psychology that arose in the 18th century ( D. Gartley, 1705-1757), which stated that the nervous system obeys physical laws and, therefore, the phenomena of consciousness are formed by association (mechanical bundle) of simpler elements. During the same period G. Konysky(1717-1795) pointed to the active nature of the display of objective reality by the psyche. G. S. Skovoroda (1722-1794) necessary condition knowledge of reality, he considered self-knowledge by a person of himself, of his essence.

The beginning of the third stage - the formation of psychology as an independent experimental science - can be considered the 60-70s of the XIX century, when the experiment came to psychology. The development of experimental psychology is associated primarily with the German scientist W. Wundt(3832-1920), who opened the world's first psychological laboratory in 1879.

Based on the accumulated experimental data, works I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936), Z. Freud(1856-1939) and many other prominent scientists, it was concluded that it is impossible to limit the subject of psychology to one consciousness, to use associations as a universal category that explains all mental activity.

This led to the emergence in the XX century. several new areas of psychology, each of which in its own way determined what this science should study: behavior, the unconscious, etc.

^ The main directions of psychological science

One of the most significant trends in the development of psychology in the 20th century is psychoanalysis, whose founder is considered an Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist 3. Freud.

Psychoanalysis is based on the idea that human behavior is determined not only by his consciousness, but also by unconscious drives and desires, to which Freud attributed, first of all, the desire for love and at the same time for death, destruction. These drives are concentrated in a special structural formation of the psyche, called "Id" (It). Secondary layer of the psyche ”Ego” (I)- designed to measure the attraction of the Eid with the requirements of the real world, presented in " Super-Ego” (Super-I)- the bearer of moral standards. Since the requirements of the Id and the Super-Ego are incompatible, the Ego is in a state of conflict, tension, from which it is saved with the help of special psychological defenses (repression, projection, sublimation, etc.).

Teaching 3. Freud was developed by his students. Thus, the central idea of ​​A. Adler (1870-1937), the creator of individual psychology, is the thesis of a person's unconscious striving for perfection, which is determined by the experience of a feeling of inferiority and the need to compensate for it.

According to C. Jung (1875-1961), according to the principles of the analytical psychology he created, the mental development of the individual as a whole is determined by the collective unconscious (archetypes) that imprinted the experience of mankind.

An influential trend in psychology was behaviorism(from the English Behavior - behavior), the founder of which is considered the American researcher D. Watson (1875-1958). Watson's scientific program was based on the S R scheme, according to which an external influence, or stimulus (S), generates a certain behavior of the organism, or reaction (R). From this the conclusion followed: it is enough to choose the right stimulus to get the required behavior. Such concepts of the inner, mental world of a person as consciousness, experience, were ignored, considered unscientific.

Another branch of psychology has been Gestalt psychology(from it. Gestalt - image, form). The emergence of this trend is associated primarily with the names of German scientists M. Wertheimer (1880-1943), K. Koffka (1886-1941), W. Köhler (1887-1967), who, in contrast to the provisions of associative psychology, put forward the idea of ​​the integrity of the image, properties which cannot be deduced from the properties of its individual parts. So, M. Wertheimer showed the possibility of perceiving movement in its actual absence. In his experiments, two segments located at a distance from each other were alternately highlighted and darkened. It turned out that with a decrease in the time intervals between flashes, the perception of two segments was replaced by the perception of the movement of one segment. (This phenomenon, called the (φ-phenomenon, is used, for example, in illuminated advertising.)

Main task cognitive(from lat. Cognilio - knowledge) psychology, which arose in the 60s of the XX century. as a direction of psychological science, was proof of the decisive role of knowledge in the mental development of man. Representatives of this trend (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, A. Paivio, W. Neisser, L. Festnger and others) focused their efforts on the study of mental, primarily cognitive, processes, which, by analogy with computers, were considered as sequential blocks of collection and information processing. As a result, the most important properties of cognitive activity (dependence on the external environment, selectivity, etc.) were revealed. One of the basic concepts of cognitive psychology is scheme(internal program for collecting and processing information). The scheme determines the deployment of all cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, etc.) just as the genotype determines the structure of an organism.

One of the leading directions of modern psychological science is humanistic psychology, which, according to the definition of one of its founders A. Maslow (1908-1970), is the third force that opposes itself to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. In contrast to behaviorism, focused on the analysis of individual events, representatives of humanistic psychology K. Rogers (1902-1987), G. Allport (1897-1967) and others consider the personality as a whole. In contrast to the psychoanalytic approach, the subject of humanistic psychology is a psychologically healthy person. At the same time, humanistic psychology claims that a person is initially good or, in extreme cases, neutral; aggression, violence arise as a result of environmental influences. The highest fundamental human needs is the need for self-realization (self-actualization) or, according to V. Frankl (born 1905), the founder of logotherapy, to find one's own meaning. In accordance with these ideas, within the framework of humanistic psychology, approaches are being developed to ensure the mental well-being of the individual.

In the 60s of the XX century, another direction was designated - transpersonal psychology, which studies the limiting possibilities of the human psyche from non-traditional positions. The main theoretical sources of transpersonal psychology are psychoanalysis and Eastern philosophical systems, the principles of which are formulated on the basis of ideas about the energy nature of the world. At the center of this direction are the so-called altered states of consciousness, which can be achieved with the help of specially organized intensive breathing (S. Grof) and special, transcendental music.

Domestic psychology in the 20th century took a special path of development based on the philosophy of dialectical materialism. On the development of ideas about the nature of the mental, prevailing in domestic psychology, significantly influenced the work of such prominent scientists as I. M. Sechenov. I. P. Pavlov, V. M. Bekhterev (1875-1927), L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), A. N. Leontiev (1903-1979), S. L. Rubinstein (1889-1960) and others

So, L. S. Vygotsky was the creator cultural and historical the concept of human mental development, which reveals the mechanisms of formation of higher mental functions (logical memory, abstract thinking, etc.) in the process of mastering culture by a person.

A. N. Leontiev, a student and follower of L. S. Vygotsky, focused on studying the structure and functioning of the mental reflection of reality in the process of activity.

In line with the theory of activity, the concept was developed phased formation P. Ya. Galperin (1902-1988), the practical implementation of which makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of training.

S. L. Rubinshtein fundamentally studied the relationship between the internal and external, formulating the principle determinism in explaining psychic phenomena.

The outstanding Ukrainian psychologist G. S. Kostyuk (1899-1982) considered the mental phenomenon as a special kind of activity, and not the activity of the brain, but of a person who more or less consciously creates his own psyche.

AT last years in domestic psychology, attempts are being made to combine philosophical, cultural and psychological approaches to the definition of the essence of the psychological phenomena of human existence (A. V. Kirichuk, V. A. Romenets, etc.). At the same time, the emergence and development of all mental phenomena are determined by the interaction of situational, motivational and other components of an act as a unit of analysis of a person's personality.

^ 3. Methods of psychological research

Methodological principles are embodied in special methods of psychology, with the help of which essential facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche are revealed.

The methods used in psychological research are divided into four groups :

^ 1. Organizational methods

Comparative method- (method of "cross section") is to compare different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication (students and workers).

^ Longitudinal method - (the “longitudinal section” method) consists in multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time (students during five years of study).

^ Complex method - a method of study in which representatives of the various sciences, which allows you to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds.

^ 2. Empirical methods

Observation- deliberate and fixed perception of external manifestations of the psyche. Introspection observation of a person by his own mental phenomena.

Experiment- the purposeful change of some factors and the registration of changes in the state and behavior of the student differs from observation by the intervention of the researcher.

Test- a system of tasks that measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person. They are divided into achievement tests, intelligence tests, creativity tests.

Questionnaire- presents a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions, serves to obtain primary socio-psychological information.

Sociometry- a method of psychological research of interpersonal relations in a group in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility.

Interview- a method consisting in the collection of information obtained in the form of answers to the questions posed, as a rule, formulated in advance.

Conversation- provides for direct or indirect receipt of psychological information through verbal communication.

3. Methodsdata processing: quantitative and qualitative analysis.

^ 4. Interpretive methods :

Genetic method (analysis of the material in terms of development with the allocation of individual stages),

Structural method (establishment of structural links between the characteristics of the psyche).

^ 4. The concept of the psyche.

classification of mental phenomena

Word psyche (Greek for “soul”) has a dual meaning.

One value - the meaning of the essence of any thing. The psyche is a reflection of the objective world in its connections and relationships, it is a virtual compression of nature. Another meaning associated with the problem of the substratum of the psyche. Many people hear and say: “The soul has gone to the heels”, “The excitement of the soul”. In these statements there is a certain movement, a certain substratum of movement. As suggested by some physicists - these may be microleptons - the smallest nuclear particles.

The connection between the psyche and the activity of the brain is beyond doubt: the inferiority of the brain leads to the inferiority of the psyche. But the independence of the mental and physiological process of the brain has also been proven - theory of psychophysiological parallelism, according to which the mental and physiological make up 2 series of phenomena that correspond to each other, but never influence each other.

There are other theories about the relationship between mental and physiological processes. ^ Mechanical identity theory claims that mental processes are physiological processes, the brain secretes the psyche, i.e. there is an identification of the psyche with nervous processes. unity theory argues that mental and physiological processes occur simultaneously, but they are qualitatively different, that the psyche is a systemic quality of the brain.

But let's pay attention that the human psyche is not given to a person ready-made from birth, it develops only in the process of communication and interaction with other people. The human psyche manifests itself in various forms - mental phenomena.

^ Classification of mental phenomena

All mental phenomena are divided into three groups :

1) mental processes,

2) mental properties of the personality,

3) mental states of the individual.

^ mental process - an act of mental activity that has an object of reflection and a regulatory function. Human mental activity is a set of mental processes.

^ Mental properties of personality - typical for this person features of his psyche. Mental properties include: temperament, character, abilities, orientation.

^ Mental condition - this is a temporary originality of mental activity, determined by the content of the activity and the attitude of a person to this activity (for example, irritation).

Mental processes, states and properties of a person are a single manifestation of his psyche.

The subject and tasks of psychological science

1. general characteristics psychology as a science

2. Comparison of everyday and scientific psychology

3. Main branches of psychology

4. Main directions of psychology

5. Methods of research in psychology

1. General characteristics of psychology as a science

In the literal sense, psychology is the knowledge of the psyche, the science that studies it. The psyche is a property of highly organized matter, a subjective reflection of the objective world, necessary for a person or animal to be active in it and control their behavior. Consciousness is the highest form of the psyche, necessary for organizing the social and individual life of people, for their joint labor activity. Here, psychology manifests itself as a set of typical for a person or a group of people, ways of behavior, communication, knowledge of the world around, persuasion and preference for character traits. For example, student psychology, female psychology. The general task of psychology is the study of the human (and animal) psyche and its psychology.

2. Comparison of scientific and everyday psychology

There are 2 different areas of psychology of knowledge - scientific and worldly psychology, and if scientific psychology arose relatively recently, then worldly psychology has always been included in various types of human practice. The condition of human existence is a certain conscious representation of the surrounding world and one's place in it. Knowledge of specific psychological patterns allows people to understand each other, to control their own behavior. The year of birth of scientific psychology is considered to be 1879 (Leipzig, Germany). The founder of the laboratory of psychology, and then the Institute of Psychology, is W. Wundt (1832-1920). According to Wundt, the subject of psychology is consciousness, namely the states of consciousness, the connections and relationships between them, the laws to which they obey. Domestic scientists of psychology believe that the subject of psychology is the natural foundations of the functioning and development of the psyche. The main difference between the scientific psyche and the worldly one is that for the worldly field research activities almost endlessly, in scientific psychology there is a sharp narrowing of the field of research activity. With the limitation of the subject and the emergence of special methods for its study, other differences in scientific and everyday psychology are also connected: 1) where and in what way psychological knowledge is acquired; 2) in what forms they are stored; 3) due to which they are transmitted, reproduced. Scientific psychology is a system of theoretical (conceptual), methodological and experimental means of knowledge and the study of psychological phenomena.

3. The main branches of psychology

Branches of psychology can be distinguished according to several criteria: 1) according to the areas of activity, the needs of which are served, i.e. by what a person does (labor psychology, pedagogical psychology); 2) according to who exactly performs this activity, i.e. is its subject and at the same time the object of psychological analysis (subject: a person of a certain age - developmental psychology); 3) for specific scientific problems, for example, communication problems, mental disorders with brain lesions (neuropsychology).

4. The main directions of psychology

Psychoanalysis, behaviorism, gestalt psychology, humanistic psychology. Psychoanalysis originally developed as a method of treating neuroses, its main idea is that human behavior is determined not only and not so much by consciousness as by unconsciousness. Ways of manifestation of the unconscious - associations, dreams, random actions in our lives. Behaviorism is a direction of American psychology that denies consciousness as a subject of psychology and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior. Behavior is the totality of the body's responses to stimuli from the outside world. The founder of the direction J. B. Watson. S-R (stimulus-response) suggested Watson. Each situation-stimulus corresponds to a certain behavior and reaction. They denied consciousness. Behaviorists believed that a person is like an animal and his reactions are like an animal. Thorndike showed that learning in many cases can be the result of trial and error. Any behavior is determined by its consequences. Gestalt psychology (Gestalt (German) - form, configuration, organization). This trend originated in Germany. Main representatives: M. Wertkaimer, K. Koffka, W. Keller. The objects that make up our environment are perceived by the senses not as separate objects, but as an organized whole. The main two concepts of Gestalt psychology are figure and ground. The figure is a closed, protruding, attention-grabbing part, and the background surrounds the figure and seems to continue continuously behind it. Humanistic psychology (existential psychology) - basic concepts: personality as a unique value system, which is not nothing given in advance, but an open possibility of self-actualization. Chief Representative: A. Maslow. The pyramid of human needs is self-actualization (the top of the triangle), self-respect, acceptance and love, the need for security, the physiological need for food and sleep (the base of the triangle). The main provisions of humanistic psychology: 1) a person must be studied in his integrity; 2) each person is unique; 3) a person is open to the world, a person's experiences of the world and himself in the world are the main psychological reality; 4) life should be considered as a single process of becoming and being of a person; 5) a person is endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization; 6) a person has a certain degree of freedom; 7) a person is an active, creative being.

5. Research methods in psychology

The main methods are observation, experiment, conversation, testing and questioning.

Evolutionary development of the psyche and consciousness

1. Levels of behavior and evolutionary development psyche

2. Conscious human activity

3. Psychological characteristics of consciousness

4. Emergence and development of consciousness

5. Consciousness and unconsciousness

1. Levels of behavior and evolutionary development of the psyche

1859 C. Darwin: "All plants and animals that now exist are descended from one form of life and are the result of an evolution lasting millions of years." There are currently 12 million. various shapes bacteria and plants, including animals, belonging to 1.2 million species. Darwin, after the expedition made by him, came to the conclusion that all species reached their diversity as a result of isolation, when one or another group was separated from another by a sea strait or a mountain range. Darwin needed to explain why the evolution of this group was in that direction. Darwin was based on the theory of human society by Thomas Malthus. According to Malthus, population growth is much faster than the growth of food sources. In case of famine or war, when food becomes scarce, competition arises and the strongest wins in the struggle for existence. This principle was transferred from human society to plant and animal society. (How in flora Is there a struggle for existence?) From the point of view of the theory of evolution, even the simplest among living organisms, due to selection, have behavior adapted to their way of life. Behavior development levels: = tropism- this is the movement of the simplest living organisms and plants, resulting from external influences. Phototropism- the tendency of living organisms to move under the influence of color. Thermotropism- the tendency of living organisms to move under the influence of heat. Chemotropism- the tendency to choose a certain physico-chemical environment. Topotropism- a tendency to move under the influence of a mechanical stimulus. All these reactions are based on biochemical processes. Metabolism is the basis of self-regulation of the body. \u003d taxis - characteristic of the simplest unicellular organisms (ciliates slipper). With the help of very simple automatic movements, the shoe is guided towards everything that looks like food and away from any unpleasant stimuli. The general and, moreover, the mechanical orientation of the organism in relation to the source of irritation is called taxis. = reflex - for the first time occur in intestinal-cavitary animals. Jellyfish - its primitive nervous system consists of nerve cells that are interconnected like a fishing tackle. A reflex is a chain of events when signals from any sense organ are transmitted through the nervous system and cause an automatic response. The unconditioned reflex is innate and manifests itself only with a strictly defined constancy of the external environment. During life, under the influence of external factors, reprogramming of innate reflexes occurs and conditioned reflexes(write from dictation). Taxis and reflexes are simple and stereotyped reactions characteristic of the most primitive animals. Distinguish between instinctive behavior and instinct. Instinctive behavior is a complex of innate and acquired components. Instinct is a part of instinctive behavior, its least plastic component, based on unconditioned reflex and aimed, as a rule, at the satisfaction of biological needs. = learning is formed, automatically carried out movements that do not require conscious control and special volitional efforts for its implementation. With the development of the ability to learn, evolutionarily more advanced species were able to change their behavior depending on the circumstances and adapt to changes in the environment. The person was able to develop the ability to establish a connection between various elements of the situation and to deduce from it correct solution, by inference, without resorting to trial actions performed unsuccessfully. The main features of animal behavior are: 1) the intellectual behavior of animals has retained its connection with biological motives and cannot go beyond their boundaries; 2) the intellectual behavior of animals is always determined by directly perceived stimuli or traces of the former honey agaric; 3) concluded in limiting the sources of this behavior. 2 sources - programs embedded in the species experience and the source of behavior is directly experience. These 3 features retain the basic features of all animal behavior.