§ 17. Ancient China Natural conditions of Ancient China In the southeast of Asia, fenced off from the world by high mountains, the Great Chinese Plain stretches. In ancient times, it was covered with dense forests. Two of the greatest rivers of Asia flow through the vast expanses of the China Plain -

Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed the way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead the great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.

Ancient people probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in the Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the approximate age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.

Historians believe that Agriculture appeared in China around 7000 BC. The first crop was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and this also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.

Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China became home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of culture has remained.

The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, the families that controlled the land became the leaders of family governments called dynasties.

Dynasties of China

The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.

Xia dynasty

The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the kingdom of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and wielded bronze weapons and earthenware.

Silk is one of the most important products that China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, although silk production may have begun much earlier.

Silk is produced by mining cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon yields one silk thread.

Not all historians agree that the Xia was a real dynasty. Some believe that the Xia story is just a mythical story, because some of the points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.

Shang dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often seen as one big family. The Shang conquered Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.

The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization, leaving behind written records that were inscribed on turtle shells, cattle bones, or other bones.

Bones were often used to determine what nature or want. If the emperor needed to know the future, say which “the king will have a son” or “whether to start a war,” assistants carved questions into the bones, then heated them to cracks. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.

During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the ancient Greeks. Also ancestor worship was very important as they believed that their family members become godlike after death.

It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seems to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.

Zhou dynasty

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to a split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou,.

The Zhou fought against the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.

During the Zhou, the Iron Age of China began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.

All agricultural land belonged to the nobility (the rich). The nobles allowed the peasants to farm the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.

The Emergence of Chinese Philosophy

During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be trained and improved if you find the right approach.

Basic postulates: people should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.

The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows "Tao" which means "the way". Tao is the driving force behind all things in the universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and be compassionate to everything.

These philosophies differ from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ​​ancestors and nature is often seen as gods. The power of the emperor was also associated with religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as a law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule - he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.

The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and riots.

By 475 BC the provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. In the end, one family (Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.

Qin dynasty

From 221 BC e. Until 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's reign did not last long, but it had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created China's first empire. The cruel leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a currency standard (money), a wheel axle size standard (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.

Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system that is used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism" which focuses on people who follow the laws and receive instructions from the government.

Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the previous dynasty's wall. Most of the walls of the Qin period are now destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.

An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, bigger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury within it. Outside the tomb is a life-sized clay army discovered in 1974.

The terracotta army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians, all made from clay.

Although the Qin dynasty did not rule for long, its standardization Chinese life left a profound influence on later dynasties in China. It is from the period of this dynasty that we derive the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. he was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began, and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.

Han dynasty

The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in the history of China. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as an ethnic origin. Government made Confucianism official system empire.

During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in present-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so much that the emperor needed a larger government to govern it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, the compass, and porcelain.

Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from a special clay that is heated until it melts and almost turns into glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often referred to as "Chinese" because a few hundred years ago all porcelain was made in China.

The Han Dynasty was also known for its military power. The empire expanded west to the edge of the Taklamakan desert, which allowed the government to guard trade flows in Central Asia.

The caravan routes are often referred to as the "Silk Road" because this route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and fortified the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.

Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness, because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.

Interesting Facts About Ancient China

Second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in society Ancient China It was called Zhangguo - the Fighting Kingdoms. It was an era of constant wars between small principalities and kingdoms, formed on the ruins of the once powerful state of Zhou. Over time, seven of the strongest stood out among them, who subjugated weak neighbors to their power and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: realms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. But it was also an era of changes in all areas of life, production and social relations. Cities grew, crafts improved, and agriculture developed, iron replaced bronze. Scientists and writers created wonderful interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry that continue to excite the reader to this day. Suffice it to say that it was at this time that Confucius and Lao Tzu lived, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, the adherents of which even now consider themselves to be the majority of the Chinese.

Despite the borders, it was a single world, one civilization, it created all the conditions not only for unification, but also for going beyond its geographical boundaries. Such unification within the framework of a single empire took place at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. under the rule of the dynasty of one of the "seven strongest" - Qin kingdoms. The dynasty ruled unified China for only one generation, only 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade it was! The reforms affected all aspects of Chinese society.

Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han era

It has been replaced by a new dynasty - Han, which not only did not cross out everything done first emperor Qin Shi Huang, but preserved, multiplied its achievements and extended them to the surrounding peoples, from the Gobi wasteland in the north to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west. The empire of ancient China end III in. BC e., lasted until the end of the II century. n. e., when new, even more significant changes brought her to crisis and collapse.

In the further history of the civilization of ancient China, many more dynasties, both local and alien, changed. Epochs of power have more than once been replaced by periods of decline. But China emerged from each crisis invariably retaining its originality and multiplying its cultural wealth. Witnesses of another rise of Chinese civilization we are with you now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was laid in that distant era when Celestial empire China.

Street of a Chinese city of the Eastern Zhou era

The emergence of the civilization of ancient China

Kingdom of Qin among other large formations of Ancient China, it was not the strongest and most enlightened. It was located in the north of the country, had heavy soils and coexisted with numerous nomadic tribes. But fenced by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and mountain ranges, - the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for attacking neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe, Jinghe and Luohe rivers, are very fertile. In the middle of the III century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guo canal, work was carried out here to drain the marshes, which significantly increased the yield. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its enrichment. Special meaning for the state had trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia. From Qin, mainly iron and products from it, salt and silk were exported. From the pastoral tribes of the north and northwest, the inhabitants of the Qin kingdom received wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest, the Qin kingdom traded with the inhabitants of the Mu and Ba regions. The fertile lands and mountain riches of these areas, which also lay at the junction of trade routes that led far to the southwest as far as ancient India, became the reason for the expansion of the Qin kingdom.

From the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the rise of Qin began. And it was not only the success of the economy and conquests. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in the Qin kingdom were carried out important reforms contributed to its comprehensive strengthening. They were conducted by the dignitary Shang Yang, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the Fajia teachings. The first was land reform, which dealt a decisive blow to communal land tenure. According to Shang Yang's regulations, land began to be bought and sold freely. In order to centralize the state, Shang Yang introduced a new Administrative division according to the territorial principle, violating the former borders established by the old tribal division. The whole kingdom was divided into counties (xiang). The counties were divided into smaller formations, each headed by state officials. Associations of five and ten families bound by mutual responsibility became the smallest administrative units. Second reform was tax. Instead of the previous land tax, which was 1/10 of the crop, Shang Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the amount of cultivated land. This provided the state with an annual permanent income independent of the harvest. Droughts, floods, and crop failures now weighed heavily on the farmers. New system levying taxes provided huge funds needed by the rulers of the Qin kingdom to wage wars.

According to military reform Shang Yang, the Qin army was rearmed and reorganized. It included cavalry. War chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of the former hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons were replaced by new ones made of iron. The long outer clothing of the warriors was replaced by a short, like that of barbarian nomads, a jacket, comfortable in campaign and battle. The army was divided into fives and dozens, connected by a system of mutual responsibility. Soldiers who did not show due courage were severely punished. After military reform Shang Yang's Qin army became one of the most combat-ready armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yang created 18 degrees of nobility for military merit. For each captured and killed enemy, one degree was relied. “Benevolent houses that do not have military merit can no longer be on the lists of the nobility,” the decree said. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the appearance on the spot of a previously amorphous formation - the kingdom of Qin - a strong centralized state. Since the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qin kingdom for the unification of the entire territory of Ancient China under its hegemony began. The Qin kingdom had no equal in strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, culminating in the formation of an empire, are associated with the name of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). As a result of many years of struggle, he subjugated one after another all the kingdoms of Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - the kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - the kingdom of Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - Kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC. e. the kingdom of Chu was finally conquered. In the same year, the kingdom of Yan also surrendered. The last - in 221 BC. e. - Kingdom of Qi conquered. The chariot, charioteer and horses are made with extraordinary precision, conveying all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a huge state, Ying Zheng chose a new title for himself and his descendants - huangdi (emperor). Later sources usually refer to him as Qin Shi Huang, which literally means "the first emperor of the Qin Empire". Almost immediately after the completion of the conquests of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang undertook successful campaigns against the Huns in the north and the Yue kingdom in the south. The Chinese state has gone beyond the borders national education. From this moment begins the countdown of the history of the imperial period.

Sericulture. Silk in ancient China

Sources testify to the veneration of the silk worm and silk weaving by the ancient Chinese. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the Sun and a symbol of fertility. Old Chinese texts mention sacred mulberry groves or isolated mulberry trees as sites of rituals associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestor. According to legend, the baby Yin, who became the founder of the first dynasty of China, was found in the hollow of a mulberry tree. The deity of the silkworm was considered a woman who kneels by a tree and weaves a silk thread.

Money in ancient China

In the VI century. BC e., as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and, in Jin kingdom coinage first appeared. Soon they began to be cast in other powers of Ancient China. in different kingdoms had money different shape : in Chu - the shape of a square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of shovels, in Qin there were large money with square holes in the middle.

Writing

For writing before the invention of paper in China, bamboo or wooden plates and silk were used. Bamboo plates were stitched into a kind of "notebooks". Silk "books" were stored in rolls.

Improved writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split bamboo trunks into thin boards and wrote hieroglyphs on them with black ink from top to bottom. Then, folded in a row, they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges - a long bamboo panel was obtained, easily rolled up. Such was an ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - juan; rolled up, they were placed in an earthen vessel, kept in stone chests of imperial libraries, in wicker boxes of scribes.

Politics of ancient China

Chinese society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the past and future changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological currents, some of which defended antiquity, others accepted all innovations as a given, and still others were looking for ways to further progress. It can be said that politics entered the home of every Chinese, and passionate disputes between supporters of various doctrines flared up in the squares and in taverns, at the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of that era were Taoism, Confucianism and Fajia, conventionally called the school of lawyers - legalists. The political platforms put forward by representatives of these trends expressed the interests of different segments of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings were both representatives of the high society, and people of the humble and poor. Some of them came from the lowest levels of society, even from among the slaves. The founder of Taoism is considered a semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise known as the Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Te). The doctrine set forth in this book has become, to a certain extent, an expression of the community's passive protest against increased tax oppression and ruin. Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against the arbitrariness and cruelty of the rulers, against violence and wars. The social ideal of ancient Taoism was a return to the primitive community. However, along with a passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached the renunciation of the struggle, putting forward the theory of "non-doing", according to which a person must dutifully follow the Tao - the natural course of life. This theory was the main principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.

Confucianism arose as an ethical and political doctrine at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. and subsequently became very widespread. Its founder is considered to be a preacher from the kingdom of Lu - Kung-tzu (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; about 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologists of the old aristocracy, justified the order of things that had developed since ancient times, had a negative attitude towards the enrichment and exaltation of ignoble people. According to the teachings of Confucius, each person in society must occupy a strictly defined place. “The sovereign must be the sovereign, the subject must be the subject, the father must be the father, the son must be the son,” said Confucius. Its adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached great importance to the cult of ancestors.

Representatives of the third direction - fajia expressed the interests of the new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, the cessation of internecine wars between the kingdoms and insisted on carrying out reforms that corresponded to the requirements of the time. This trend of social thought flourished in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of the Fajia were Shang Yang, who lived in the 4th century. BC e. and Han Fei (3rd century BC). Legists created their own theory of political and state structure. In their works, for the first time in the history of China, idea of ​​"legal law" like tools government controlled. In contrast to the Confucians, who were guided by ancient traditions and customs, the Legalists believed that the government of the state should be based on strict and binding laws (fa) that meet the needs of modern times. They were supporters of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the unification of ancient China, it was the one who followed this teaching that won. He was elected by the rulers of the outlying and least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who readily accepted the idea of ​​a “strong kingdom and a weak people”, absolute power over the entire Celestial Empire.

Craft

About the level development of ancient Chinese crafts says a list of professions. Ancient writers report of craftsmen of various trades: skillful casters, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, wagon makers, pottery makers, weavers, even builders of dams and dams. Each region and city was famous for its craftsmen: the kingdom of Qi - for the production of silk and linen fabrics, and its capital Linzi was the largest center of weaving at that time. Here, thanks to the convenient location, salt and fishing industries have received special development. The city of Linqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, has become one of the most significant centers for the extraction and processing of iron. The largest centers of iron production at that time were Nanyang in the kingdom of Han and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the Chu kingdom, the city of Hofei was famous for the production of leather products, Changsha - for jewelry. Coastal cities are known for building ships. The well-preserved wooden model 1b-rowing boat(see below), which was discovered by archaeologists during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era, the Chinese invented a primitive compass; it was originally used for overland travel, and then it began to be used and Chinese sailors. The growth of cities and handicraft production, the expansion of the land and water road network gave impetus to the development of trade.

At this time, connections were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. Slaves, horses, cattle, sheep, leather and wool were bought from the northern and western tribes of the Chinese; the tribes that lived in the south - ivory, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was considered stronger and richer, where there were a significant number of large merchants. And their influence on political life so intensified that more and more often they began to occupy the highest public office at the yard. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the IV century. BC e. trader Bai Tui became a major dignitary. In the kingdom of Qin in the III century. BC e. the famous horse trader Lü Buwei served as the first councillor. The Tian family rose in the Qi realm.

The rise of public political thought Ancient China refers to the VI - III century. in. BC e. During this period, deep economic and political changes took place in the country, due to the emergence of private ownership of land. The growth of property differentiation within the communities led to the rise of the prosperous strata; weakening of patriarchal clan ties; deepening social contradictions.
There is a struggle between the property and hereditary aristocracy. The country is in a protracted political crisis.
In search of a way out of the crisis, various schools and directions are formed in social and political thought. The most influential political teachings in Ancient China were Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism.

1. China V-III century. BC e. Character traits social structure.
In the history of ancient China in the 5th century. BC. was a turning point in many respects. At this time, the action of those factors that lead to the unification of the kingdoms into a single empire, where Confucianism became the dominant political ideology, is born. Thanks to the introduction of iron tools, there is a sharp rise in the economy.
The development of new lands, the improvement of irrigation facilities, the growth of agricultural and handicraft production contribute to the development commodity-money relations, the folding of the market, the separation of the merchant class. Under these conditions, there is an intensive decomposition of communal and the establishment of private ownership of land, the creation of large private land ownership.
All this leads to the fact that in the last centuries BC. In China, the confrontation of two tendencies in the development of society is manifested. On the one hand, large-scale private ownership of land is developing, based on the exploitation of peasant tenants, hired workers, and slaves; on the other hand, a wide stratum of tax-paying peasantry is being formed, directly subordinate to the state.
These were two possible development paths:

1) through the victory of large-scale private ownership of land - the path of fragmentation, civil strife;

2) through the strengthening of state ownership of land and the creation of a single centralized state. The second way is approved, the carrier of which is the kingdom of Qin. In 221 BC. it triumphantly ended the struggle for the unification of the country.
The foundations of social orders, the state machine, created in Qin China, turned out to be so adapted to the needs of the empire that they were transferred without any changes to the Han. Having become traditional, they actually survived in imperial China until bourgeois revolution 1911-1913

11. The political system of the states of ancient India.

Organization of the Mauryan Empire (317 - 180 BC)

The state administration was strictly organized. The emperor and the council of dignitaries surrounding him - parishads - acted as the central executive body responsible for making important decisions and putting them into practice. In addition to the parishad, under the emperor there was also secret council from a narrow circle of trusted persons, and, if necessary, an advisory representative body of the rajasabha, which apparently included both dignitaries and aristocrats from among the formerly independent rulers, but, possibly, also elected from the townspeople and communities, at least some . Judging by the organization of individual departments, in particular the military, there was a specialized staff of officials to manage them, groups of which were responsible for their field of activity. Information about the administrative management of cities. Some cities were controlled by central officials, others by provincial administrators. The principle of administration was the same: the department was divided into groups of specialized officials, each of which was responsible for its own area of ​​​​work - whether it was the control of artisans, the collection of taxes and duties, the supervision of prices and markets, the preservation of public buildings, population registration, etc.

The provincial ones were subordinate to the central apparatus, and their nature varied depending on the degree of importance, level of development or remoteness of a particular area. The empire had four or five main governorships, which were managed both by governors from the center (they were mostly princes), and by the local administration that previously existed there, sometimes headed by local rajah rulers. Similarly, i.e. in the form of a combination of a centralized system of administration with local, up to communal self-government, the situation was in the provinces and regions, including those areas where local autonomy was preserved, such as, for example, in ganas and sanghas with non-hereditary elected power of rulers. The maintenance of the cumbersome and ramified administration apparatus, as well as all aristocrats, warriors, and in general the entire complex state structure, fell on the shoulders of the working people, primarily the communal peasants, who paid a sixth share of the harvest to the treasury as rent-tax and performed various duties. In addition to communal land tenure, there was, as already mentioned, official, including temple-priestly (the lands of Brahmins and Buddhist temples, as well as other religious organizations and sects), royal and military.

Varnovo-caste social hierarchy

The system of varnas developed over the centuries at the turn of our era has already changed in many ways. Changes took place in a number of directions. One of them - the convergence of the status of the two lower varnas and their opposition to the two upper ones - has already been discussed. But this was not the end of the matter. First of all, there was a noticeable differentiation, both property and social, in the upper varnas, especially in the varna of the Brahmins. The number of Brahmins grew, and not all of them were required for ritual and cult priestly needs. And not everyone was inclined or capable of this kind of activity. It is not surprising, therefore, that a considerable number of brahmins, remaining exactly brahmins according to the varna, began to engage in other activities that were not inherent in the keepers of wisdom and priests, up to very unprestigious ones (doctors, actors, shepherds, etc.). As for the kshatriyas, serious changes also took place here, but of a different plan. The original hereditary kshatriyas, primarily warriors, decreased in number, in no small measure due to battles and mutual extermination, court intrigues and dramatic episodes during periods of change of power and dynasties. This also applied to many ancient ruling aristocratic families. At the same time, the rulers, officials and warriors who came to replace them from other varias (recall that a number of dynasties were headed by people from the Shudras, and Brahmins often became their advisers) did not have the right to easily penetrate into the Kshatriya varna - the law of the Indian varna read that it depends on birth, and not on the property or social status of a person. Of course, there could be exceptions to general rule, but in general the law remained the law and its consequence was a gradual decrease in the number and importance of the Kshatriya varna.

Individual representatives of both lower varnas, Vaishyas and Shudras, have greatly increased and strengthened their positions. From their number came a lot of wealthy city dwellers. At least some of them penetrated into the upper strata of society, among the rulers, officials, warriors. It turned out to be a kind of paradox: the usual norm still followed the traditional gradation of varnas with corresponding privileges and sanctions in case of offenses for members of each of them, while real life shifted a lot of emphasis. In practice, the distances between the varnas turned out to be different than they were before. An adjustment was needed, some other scale of the social account.

But the changes in the traditional system of varnas were not limited to this. Firstly, the Indianization of the southern regions of Hindustan all the time introduced new contingents into the composition of Indian culture and Indian society, including the Varna system. Of course, the majority of the population of the southern regions, newly introduced to Indian civilization, almost automatically became among the Shudras. But after all, among the new converts were priests, rulers, officials, warriors

Secondly, within the framework of each of the ancient Indian varnas that existed since ancient times, there was its own process of internal differentiation and specialization. Those who remained within the boundaries of the varna, but specialized in some part of those broad functions that were previously common to all members of this varna, began to differ markedly from the rest. This caused a natural fragmentation of the former four varnas into smaller divisions within them, into a kind of subvarnas, each of which united people of a similar specialty, similar occupation and qualifications, and, moreover, tended to further even narrower specialization.

Chinese ancient civilization there are about 5000 years. Found ancient sources prove that China is no less 3500 years. For several centuries after the death of the first emperor, China was torn apart by wars. By 626 B.C. the golden age again began in the country. Power passed to the first emperor of the dynasty Tan - Taizong . In the capital of the empire, moved to Chang'an, merchants arrived along the Great Silk Road. Markets were bustling all over the city. Different religions coexisted peacefully. For the first time, ordinary people, and not just the nobility, could hold public office. Everyone who expected to get a place in public service, had to pass the exam. The population worked in the production of salt, paper, iron. The arts and crafts flourished. Peasants sold their goods on the streets, many were drafted into the army.

First Emperor

Before 221 BC China was divided into several kingdoms, each with its own ruler, who fought among themselves for more than 250 years. The state won Qin(from this word comes the name of China in European languages). Its ruler took the title Qin Shi Huang, which means "the first emperor of Qin". He ascended the throne at just 13 years old. A brilliant commander and politician, he swept away anyone who stood in his way. For his cool temper, he was nicknamed " qin tiger". Qin ordered to burn books that contradicted his ideas, and throw dissenting scientists into a pit. But the emperor was afraid to die. In his magnificent palace there were more than 1000 bedrooms, and every night he changed his place of lodging for the night, fearing to be killed in his sleep.
Qin Shi Huang sought to preserve the unity of the empire. He removed the former rulers from power, settling them in the capital Chang'an, re-divided the country into regions and appointed his officials. At his direction, a network of roads and canals was built. For the security of the northern border, the emperor ordered the construction of a gigantic structure - the Great Wall of China, part of which has survived to this day. The emperor undertook to restore the strength and wealth of the country after long wars. The writing was unified. All products, even bricks, had to bear the name of the manufacturer: craftsmen could be punished for poor work. The length of the cart axles had to be the same, corresponding to the rut knocked out in the roads. Chinese kingdoms minted their own coins. At Qin Shi Huang all coins were round, with a hole for a cord.
Despite all efforts, the empire collapsed shortly after death. Qin Shi Huang, in 210 BC

the great Wall of China

For a long time, China was threatened by the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu (Xiongnu, or Huns) who lived to the north of it. Local rulers tried to protect themselves by building large walls. AT 214 BC the emperor ordered them to be connected into one giant border wall more than 3460 km. The construction was led by a military leader Meng Tian who sent officials to oversee the work. The wall was built by thousands of peasants. Whip-wielding overseers constantly monitored the pace and speed of the work. The soldiers guarded the construction site from enemy attacks. Cold, damp and dangerous working conditions killed people. The dead were buried right where they fell.

The workers used simple tools - picks, shovels, baskets and cargo, manual wheelbarrows. For lifting huge cobblestones, slabs and stones, scaffolding was used from tied bamboo poles. A mound of stones and earth was covered with stone slabs.

The height of the wall was 9 meters, and the width is such that a chariot could pass through it. Watch towers were built in the upper parts of the fortification. Slot-like openings for archery and crossbows were also designed in the wall.

Ultimately, it was considered that Great Wall has a silhouette Chinese dragon head to the west and tail to the east.

Capital of China - Chang'an

Under the Tang dynasty Chang'an became largest city world. Chang'an means " forever safe". The city was home to over a million permanent residents and many foreign merchants, travelers and scientists. The clothes were made of colored silk. Only the emperor could wear yellow clothes. The emperor's palace, surrounded by a high wall, was located in the northern part of the city. Musicians and dancers, houses made of wood were covered with varnish, tiles were constructed on the roofs of houses.

The life of the rich nobility

The rich lived in grand style. Wealthy families had beautiful houses of 2-3 floors. Lush silk robes, luxurious feasts at which servants served pork or venison dishes and drinks made from millet and rice. Long hours were devoted to enjoying music and poetry, playing chess and cards. The houses were decorated with luxury goods made of gold and silver, jade and porcelain. Lacquerware and painting on silk were popular. Noble Chinese moved around the city in a stretcher - a palanquin.

Great Inventions

The Chinese were great inventors. In 2nd century BC they invented paper, later printing with wooden stamps. They also designed an instrument to measure the strength of earthquakes. In the era of the Tang Dynasty, mechanical water clocks, a magnetic compass, paper playing cards and fine porcelain. Gunpowder was invented, with the help of which fireworks were arranged. The Chinese invented printing. The pages were connected in a long strip, the book was rolled up.

Great Silk Road

The Tang emperors encouraged trade. Caravans of camels and horses took away silk, porcelain, salt, tea and paper along the Great Silk Road more than 7000 km. It connected China with the Mediterranean and went through Central Asia, Persia, and Syria. The Chinese bought furs, horses, gold, spices from their neighbors. Fur products were brought from the north.
The journey along the Great Silk Road was long. Merchants traveled in caravans. We set up camp for the night. The Great Silk Road was named so because of the great importance of the silk trade.

Craft and Art of China

The Chinese have learned how to extract salt from underground salt water. The brine was brought to the surface and sent through bamboo pipes to vats, where the water was evaporated. In the II century BC. China started making paper. Pulp was made from mulberry wood and dried on wooden frames. Buddhist monks first brought tea bushes from the Himalayas, which soon began to grow. Farmers plowed the fields before sowing millet and grew rice. Irrigation allowed to develop new lands for crops .About the VI century BC. The Chinese learned how to make silk from silkworm cocoons. Craftsmen learned how to build blast furnaces and smelt steel. Their weapons and tools have become stronger. The road builders rammed the earth to build the road.
It was very popular in China calligraphy- the art of beautiful writing. Artists decorated pottery with colored glaze. The outlines of the superb beautiful landscape of rocks in South China have become a favorite subject of painters and artists.

Philosophy and the way of knowledge

The Chinese have never believed in a single god. They deified nature, worshiping the spirits of mountains, rivers and trees. They also developed two religious and philosophical schools, indicating the norms of human relations. These are the teachings of Laozi (Taoism) and Confucius (Confucianism). The basis of Taoism is the belief in harmony with nature. Confucians relied on virtue, the family, and the stability of society. However, when in 1st century BC. borrowed from India Buddhism, it spread very widely. Monk Xuan Zang returned to India with Buddhist treatises for his learned brethren in 629. Pilgrims went to the sacred "Caves of a Thousand Buddhas". More than in 1000 caves there were wall paintings, Buddhist sculptures and an extensive library.
Taoist sages contemplated the symbol Yin Yang. The Chinese believed that yin and yang had great power with the universe, and their balance ensured the harmony of the world.
The Chinese believed that in the human body there is a network of pathways through which energy flows. Needles inserted into special points affect the flow of energy and heal diseases. This treatment is called

Since ancient times, the Chinese have buried the dead along with objects for the afterlife. In the graves of rulers, not only food, drinks and personal property are found, but also the bodies of servants who were supposed to be in the eternal service of their master. The Chinese revered their dead ancestors, believing in their help and protection.
princess Dou Wan buried in a robe of pieces of jade, connected by gold. Jade was supposed to protect her body from decay.
In the tomb of the emperor, a life-size copy of his army, made from terracotta: 7500 infantry, archers, officers, chariots and horses. The crossbows were cocked to fire in an attempted robbery. There were also models of palaces, and canals filled with mercury, set in motion by wheels, depicting a river Yangtze. Thousands of people worked on this. AT 1974 the tomb was accidentally found by workers digging a well.
Imperial tomb with " terracotta army"They built on Mount Li. The bodies of the figures were made separately, then the head and hands were attached. Inside the tomb, in the underground corridors, warriors and horses stood row by row. The face of each warrior was different from the other.