Characteristics of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 briefly. Negotiations in Berlin

The leading direction of foreign policy of the second half of XIX in. remained eastern question . The Crimean War exacerbated the contradictions in the Balkans and in the Mediterranean region. Russia was very concerned about the insecurity of the borders in the Black Sea region and the inability to defend its interests in Eastern Mediterranean especially in the straits.

As the national liberation war intensified in the Balkans, a mass movement in support of the South Slavs grew in Russia. A new wave of public indignation arose in connection with the brutal suppression of the April uprising in Bulgaria by the Turkish authorities. Outstanding Russian scientists, writers, artists spoke out in defense of the Bulgarian people - D.I. Mendeleev, N.I. Pirogov, L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.S. Isakov, I.E. Repin and others.

In July 1876 The governments of Serbia and Montenegro demanded that Turkey stop the massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, this demand was not satisfied, and on July 30 both Slavic states declared war on Turkey. About 5 thousand Russian soldiers joined the Serbian army. Russian volunteer doctors worked in hospitals in Serbia and Montenegro, among whom were such well-known doctors as N.V. Sklifosovsky, S.P. Botkin.

In an acute international situation, tsarism sought to evade open participation in the conflict that had arisen. Turkey refused to guarantee the rights of the Christian population.

April 12, 1877 Russia declared war Turkey. Events unfolded in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. On the day of the declaration of war, the Russian army crossed the Romanian border and moved to the Danube. On July 7, Russian troops captured the Shipka Pass.

A large military group was thrown against the Russian troops under the command of Suleiman Pasha. One of the heroic episodes of the war began - protection of the Shipka pass.

In extremely difficult conditions, with the multiple superiority of the enemy forces, the Russian troops repelled the attacks of the Turkish troops.

At the same time, the enemy managed to concentrate large forces in the fortress Plevna located at the intersection of major roads. In November 1977, Plevna surrendered, which was the most important event in the course of the war. After the capture of Plevna by the Russian troops, the final period of the war began.

On December 3, a detachment under the command I.V. Gurko in the most difficult conditions of the mountainous terrain with a 25-degree frost, he overcame the Balkans and liberated Sofia.

Another detachment under the command F.F. Radetzky through the Shipka Pass he reached the fortified Turkish camp of Sheinovo. One of the largest battles of the war took place here, during which the enemy was defeated. Russian troops were moving towards Constantinople.

Events also developed successfully in the Transcaucasian theater of operations. In early May 1877, Russian troops successfully captured the fortresses of Ardagan and Kare.

Negotiations on a peace treaty with Turkey ended February 19, 1878 at San Stefano, near Constantinople. According to the contract Serbia, Romania and Montenegro received full independence. Creation was proclaimed Bulgaria- an autonomous principality, in which Russian troops were located for two years. Turkey committed to reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Northern Dobruja was transferred to Romania. Russia was returning Southern Bessarabia rejected by the Paris Treaty. In Asia, cities retreated to Russia Ardagan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet and a large area up to Saganlung populated mainly by Armenians. The Treaty of San Stefano met the aspirations of the Balkan peoples and was of progressive significance for the peoples of Transcaucasia.

The Western powers could not accept the strengthening of Russian positions in the Balkans and the Caucasus. They refused to accept the terms of the San Stefano Treaty and demanded its revision. Russia was forced to give in.

AT July in Berlin The congress opened in which the European states, acting as a united front, changed the San Stefano Treaty. Southern Bulgaria came under Turkish rule. The territories of independent Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were reduced. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, England - Cyprus.

Foreign policy of Russia at the end of the 19th century.

In the last quarter of the XIX century. growing contradictions between the great powers: Russia, England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Their confrontation determined the situation in the world, affecting the interests of other states. Late XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century. was marked by the creation of blocs of states.

June 6 1881 was signed by the Austro-Russian-German treaty, which went down in history under the name " Union of the Three Emperors". The treaty fixed the mutual obligations of the parties to remain generally neutral in the event of a war between one of them and a fourth party. In general, this agreement was beneficial to Russia, but was short-lived and easily terminated, which predetermined its weakness.

Despite the conclusion of the treaty, the policy of the Russian government began to acquire more and more anti-German features. In 1887, decrees were issued restricting the flow of German capital into Russia and raising duties on the import of metal, metal products and coal, on products of the chemical industry, etc.

By the end of the 1980s, Russia's contradictions with Austria-Hungary and Germany had become more significant than those with England. In resolving international issues, the Russian government began to look for partners. An important prerequisite for such a step was the serious changes in the entire European situation, caused by the conclusion of 1882 Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In the early 1990s, there were signs of a rapprochement between the members of the Triple Alliance and England. Under these conditions, the rapprochement between Russia and France began, which had not only a political, but also an economic basis. Since 1887, Russia began to regularly receive French loans. August 27 1891. was concluded Russian-French alliance, and in 1892 - a military convention. In January 1894, the treaty was ratified by Alexander III.

Chapel-monument to the heroes of Plevna, Moscow

Wars do not break out suddenly, even treacherous ones. More often, the fire first smolders, gaining inner strength, and then flares up - the war begins. A smoldering fire for the Russian-Turkish war of 1977-78. there were events in the Balkans.

Preconditions for war

In the summer of 1875, an anti-Turkish uprising broke out in southern Herzegovina. The peasants, mostly Christians, paid huge taxes to the Turkish state. In 1874, the tax in kind was officially considered 12.5% ​​of the harvested crop, and taking into account the abuses of the local Turkish administration, it reached 40%.

Bloody clashes began between Christians and Muslims. Ottoman troops intervened, but they met with unexpected resistance. The entire male population of Herzegovina armed, left their homes and went to the mountains. The elderly, women and children fled to neighboring Montenegro and Dalmatia to avoid massacre. The Turkish authorities were unable to suppress the uprising. From southern Herzegovina, it soon moved to the north, and from there to Bosnia, whose Christian inhabitants partly fled to the Austrian border regions, and partly also entered into a struggle with the Muslims. Blood flowed like a river in the daily clashes of the rebels with Turkish troops and with local Muslim residents. There was no mercy for anyone, the fight was to the death.

In Bulgaria, Christians had an even harder time, as they suffered from Muslim highlanders who migrated from the Caucasus with the encouragement of the Turks: the highlanders robbed the local population, not wanting to work. The Bulgarians also raised an uprising following Herzegovina, but it was suppressed by the Turkish authorities - over 30 thousand civilians were destroyed.

K. Makovsky "Bulgarian martyrs"

Enlightened Europe understood that it was time to intervene in Balkan affairs and protect civilians. But by and large, this "defense" was limited to calls for humanism. In addition, each of the European countries had their own predatory plans: England zealously watched to prevent Russia from gaining influence in world politics, and not to lose its influence in Constantinople, Egypt. But at the same time, she would like to fight together with Russia against Germany, because. British Prime Minister Disraeli declared that “Bismarck is truly a new Bonaparte, he must be curbed. An alliance is possible between Russia and us for this particular purpose.”

Austria-Hungary was afraid of the territorial expansion of some Balkan countries, so she tried not to let Russia go there, which expressed a desire to help the Slavic peoples of the Balkans. In addition, Austria-Hungary did not want to lose control of the mouth of the Danube. At the same time, this country pursued a wait-and-see policy in the Balkans, as it was afraid of a one-on-one war with Russia.

France and Germany were preparing for a war between themselves over Alsace and Lorraine. But Bismarck understood that Germany would not be able to wage war on two fronts (with Russia and France), so he agreed to actively support Russia if it guaranteed Germany the possession of Alsace and Lorraine.

Thus, by 1877, a situation had developed in Europe when only Russia could conduct active actions in the Balkans to protect the Christian peoples. Before Russian diplomacy there was a difficult task to take into account all possible gains and losses during the next redrawing of the geographical map of Europe: bargain, give in, foresee, issue ultimatums ...

A Russian German guarantee for Alsace and Lorraine would destroy a keg of gunpowder in the center of Europe. Moreover, France was too dangerous and unreliable ally of Russia. In addition, Russia was worried about the straits of the Mediterranean Sea ... England could have been treated more harshly. But, according to historians, Alexander II was poorly versed in politics, and Chancellor Gorchakov was already old - they acted contrary to common sense, since both bowed to England.

On June 20, 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey (in the hope of supporting the rebels in Bosnia and Herzegovina). In Russia, this decision was supported. About 7 thousand Russian volunteers went to Serbia. The hero of the Turkestan war, General Chernyaev, became the head of the Serbian army. On October 17, 1876, the Serbian army was completely defeated.

On October 3, in Livadia, Alexander II gathered a secret meeting, which was attended by Tsarevich Alexander, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and a number of ministers. It was decided that, along with it, it was necessary to continue diplomatic activities, but at the same time begin preparations for a war with Turkey. The main goal of hostilities should be Constantinople. To move towards it, mobilize four corps that will cross the Danube near Zimnitsa, move to Adrianople, and from there to Constantinople along one of two lines: Sistovo - Shipka, or Ruschuk - Slivno. The commanders of the active troops were appointed: on the Danube - Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, and beyond the Caucasus - Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. The solution of the question - whether or not to be a war - was made dependent on the outcome of diplomatic negotiations.

The Russian generals did not seem to feel the danger. The phrase was transmitted everywhere: "There will be nothing for the four corps to do beyond the Danube." Therefore, instead of a general mobilization, only partial mobilization was launched. As if they were not going to fight with the huge Ottoman Empire. At the end of September, mobilization began: 225,000 spare soldiers were called up, 33,000 preferential Cossacks, and 70,000 horses were delivered for horse mobilization.

Fighting on the Black Sea

By 1877, Russia had a fairly strong navy. At first, Turkey was very afraid of the Russian Atlantic squadron. But then she grew bolder and began hunting for Russian merchant ships in the Mediterranean. Russia, however, responded to this only with notes of protest.

On April 29, 1877, the Turkish squadron landed 1000 well-armed highlanders near the village of Gudauty. A part of the local population hostile to Russia joined the landing. Then there were bombardments and shelling of Sukhum, as a result, the Russian troops were forced to leave the city and retreat across the Madjara River. On May 7-8, Turkish ships cruised along the 150-kilometer section of the Russian coast from Adler to Ochamchira and shelled the coast. 1,500 highlanders landed from Turkish steamships.

By May 8, the entire coast from Adler to the Kodor River was in revolt. From May to September, Turkish ships constantly supported the Turks and Abkhazians in the area of ​​the uprising with fire. The main base of the Turkish fleet was Batum, but some of the ships were based in Sukhum from May to August.

The actions of the Turkish fleet can be called successful, but it was a tactical success in a secondary theater of operations, since main war was in the Balkans. They continued to shell the coastal cities of Evpatoria, Feodosia, Anapa. The Russian fleet returned fire, but rather sluggishly.

Fighting on the Danube

Victory over Turkey was impossible without forcing the Danube. The Turks were well aware of the importance of the Danube as a natural barrier for the Russian army, so from the beginning of the 60s they began to create a strong river flotilla and modernize the Danube fortresses - the most powerful of them were five. Hussein Pasha commanded the Turkish flotilla. Without the destruction or at least neutralization of the Turkish flotilla, there was nothing to think about forcing the Danube. The Russian command decided to do this with the help of minefields, boats with pole and towed mines and heavy artillery. Heavy artillery was supposed to suppress enemy artillery and destroy Turkish fortresses. Preparations for this began in the autumn of 1876. From November 1876, 14 steam boats and 20 rowboats were delivered to Chisinau by land. The war in this region was long, protracted, only by the beginning of 1878, most of the Danube region was cleared of the Turks. They had only a few fortifications and fortresses isolated from each other.

Battle of Plevna

V. Vereshchagin "Before the attack. Under Plevna"

The next task was to take the undefended Plevna. This city was of strategic importance as a junction of roads leading to Sofia, Lovcha, Tarnovo, Shipka Pass. In addition, advanced patrols reported on the movement towards Plevna of large enemy forces. These were the troops of Osman Pasha, urgently transferred from Western Bulgaria. Initially, Osman Pasha had 17 thousand people with 30 field guns. While the Russian army was transmitting orders and coordinating actions, Osman Pasha's troops occupied Plevna and began to build fortifications. When the Russian troops finally approached Plevna, they were met with Turkish fire.

By July, 26 thousand people and 184 field guns were concentrated near Plevna. But the Russian troops did not guess to surround Plevna, so the Turks were freely supplied with ammunition and food.

It ended in disaster for the Russians - 168 officers and 7167 privates were killed and wounded, while the losses of the Turks did not exceed 1200 people. Artillery acted sluggishly and spent only 4073 shells during the entire battle. After that, panic began in the Russian rear. Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich turned to the Romanian King Charles for help. Alexander II, dejected by the "Second Plevna", announced additional mobilization.

Alexander II, the Romanian King Charles and Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich personally arrived to watch the assault. As a result, this battle was also lost - the troops suffered huge losses. The Turks repulsed the assault. The Russians lost two generals killed and wounded, 295 officers and 12,471 soldiers, their Roman allies lost about three thousand people. Only about 16 thousand against three thousand Turkish losses.

Defense of the Shipka Pass

V. Vereshchagin "After the attack. Dressing station near Plevna"

The shortest road between the northern part of Bulgaria and Turkey at that time went through the Shipka Pass. All other paths were inconvenient for the passage of troops. The Turks understood the strategic importance of the pass, and instructed the 6,000-strong detachment of Halyussi Pasha to defend it with nine guns. To capture the pass, the Russian command formed two detachments - Vanguard consisting of 10 battalions, 26 squadrons and hundreds with 14 mountain and 16 horse guns under the command of Lieutenant General Gurko, and the Gabrovsky detachment consisting of 3 battalions and 4 hundreds with 8 field and two horse guns under the command of Major General Derozhinsky.

Russian troops took up a position on Shipka in the form of an irregular quadrangle stretched along the Gabrovo road.

On August 9, the Turks launched the first assault on the Russian positions. Russian batteries literally bombarded the Turks with shrapnel and forced them to roll back.

From August 21 to 26, the Turks made continuous attacks, but everything was in vain. “We will stand to the last, we will lie down with bones, but we will not give up our position!” - said the head of the Shipka position, General Stoletov, at the military council. Fierce fighting on Shipka did not stop for a whole week, but the Turks did not manage to advance a single meter.

N. Dmitriev-Orenburg "Shipka"

On August 10-14, Turkish attacks alternated with Russian counterattacks, but the Russians held out and repelled the attacks. Shipka's "sitting" lasted more than five months, from July 7 to December 18, 1877.

A harsh winter with twenty-degree frosts and snowstorms has set in the mountains. From mid-November the Balkan passes were covered with snow, and the troops suffered severely from the cold. In the entire detachment of Radetzky, from September 5 to December 24, the combat loss amounted to 700 people, while 9,500 people fell ill and were frostbitten.

One of the participants in the defense of Shipka wrote in his diary:

Severe frost and a terrible snowstorm: the number of frostbite reaches terrifying proportions. There is no way to start a fire. The overcoats of the soldiers were covered with a thick ice crust. Many cannot bend their arm, movements have become very difficult, and those who have fallen cannot rise without assistance. Snow covers them up in three or four minutes. The overcoats are so frozen that their floors do not bend, but break. People refuse to eat, gather in groups and are in constant motion to keep warm at least a little. There is nowhere to hide from frost and blizzard. Soldiers' hands stuck to the barrels of guns and rifles.

Despite all the difficulties, the Russian troops continued to hold the Shipka Pass, and Radetsky invariably answered all requests from the command: "Everything is calm on Shipka."

V. Vereshchagin "Everything is calm on Shipka ..."

Russian troops, holding Shipkinsky, crossed the Balkans through other passes. These were very difficult transitions, especially for artillery: the horses fell and stumbled, stopping all movement, so they were unharnessed, and the soldiers carried all the weapons on themselves. They had 4 hours a day to sleep and rest.

On December 23, General Gurko occupied Sofia without a fight. The city was heavily fortified, but the Turks did not defend themselves and fled.

The passage of the Russians through the Balkans stunned the Turks, they began a hasty retreat to Adrianople in order to strengthen themselves there and delay the advance of the Russians. At the same time, they turned to England with a request for help in a peaceful settlement of their relations with Russia, but Russia rejected the proposal of the London Cabinet, replying that if Turkey wanted, she herself should ask for mercy.

The Turks began to hastily retreat, and the Russians caught up and smashed them. The avant-garde of Skobelev joined the army of Gurko, who correctly assessed the military situation and moved to Adrianople. This brilliant military raid sealed the fate of the war. Russian troops violated all strategic plans Turkey:

V. Vereshchagin "Snow trenches on Shipka"

they were smashed from all sides, including from the rear. The completely demoralized Turkish army turned to the Russian commander-in-chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich, with a request for a truce. Constantinople and the region of the Dardanelles were almost in the hands of the Russians, when England intervened, inciting Austria to break off relations with Russia. Alexander II began to give conflicting orders: either to occupy Constantinople, or to wait. Russian troops stood 15 versts from the city, while the Turks, meanwhile, began to build up their forces in the region of Constantinople. At this time, the British entered the Dardanelles. The Turks understood that they could stop the collapse of their empire only by an alliance with Russia.

Russia imposed peace on Turkey, unfavorable to both states. The peace treaty was signed on February 19, 1878 in the town of San Stefano near Constantinople. The Treaty of San Stefano more than doubled the territory of Bulgaria compared to the boundaries outlined by the Constantinople Conference. She was given a significant part of the Aegean coast. Bulgaria became a state stretching from the Danube in the north to the Aegean in the south. From the Black Sea in the east to the Albanian mountains in the west. Turkish troops lost the right to remain within Bulgaria. Within two years it was to be occupied by the Russian army.

Monument "Defense of Shipka"

The results of the Russian-Turkish war

The Treaty of San Stefano provided for the complete independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania, the provision of a port on the Adriatic to Montenegro, and northern Dobruja to the Romanian principality, the return of southwestern Bessarabia to Russia, the transfer of Kars, Ardagan, Bayazet and Batum, as well as some territorial acquisitions for Serbia and Montenegro. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, reforms were to be carried out in the interests of the Christian population, as well as in Crete, Epirus and Thessaly. Turkey had to pay an indemnity in the amount of 1 billion 410 million rubles. However, most of this amount was covered by territorial concessions from Turkey. The actual payment was 310 million rubles. The issue of the Black Sea straits was not discussed in San Stefano, which indicates a complete misunderstanding by Alexander II, Gorchakov and others ruling persons military-political and economic significance for the country.

In Europe, the San Stefano Treaty was condemned, and Russia made the following mistake: it agreed to its revision. The Congress opened on June 13, 1878 in Berlin. It was attended by countries that did not take part in this war: Germany, England, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy. The Balkan countries arrived in Berlin, but were not members of the congress. According to the decisions adopted in Berlin, Russia's territorial acquisitions were reduced to Kars, Ardagan and Batum. Bayazet district and Armenia up to Saganlug were returned to Turkey. The territory of Bulgaria was cut in half. Especially unpleasant for the Bulgarians was the fact that they were deprived of access to the Aegean Sea. But significant territorial acquisitions were received by countries that did not participate in the war: Austria-Hungary received control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, England - the island of Cyprus. Cyprus is of strategic importance in the eastern Mediterranean. For more than 80 years, the British used it after that for their own purposes, and several British bases still remain there.

Thus ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78, which brought much blood and suffering to the Russian people.

As they say, the winners are forgiven everything, and the losers are blamed for everything. Therefore, Alexander II, despite the abolition of serfdom, signed his own verdict through the Narodnaya Volya organization.

N. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky "The capture of the Grivitsky redoubt near Plevna"

Heroes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878

"White General"

M.D. Skobelev was strong personality, strong-willed person. He was called the “White General” not only because he wore a white tunic, cap and rode a white horse, but also for the purity of his soul, sincerity and honesty.

His life is a vivid example of patriotism. In just 18 years, he went through a glorious military career from an officer to a general, became a knight of many orders, including the highest - St. George 4th, 3rd and 2nd degrees. Especially widely and comprehensively the talents of the "white general" manifested themselves during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. At first, Skobelev was at the headquarters of the commander-in-chief, then he was appointed chief of staff of the Caucasian Cossack division, commanded a Cossack brigade during the Second Assault on Plevna and a separate detachment that captured Lovcha. During the Third Assault on Plevna, he successfully led his detachment and managed to break through to Plevna, but was not promptly supported by the command. Then, commanding the 16th infantry division, he participated in the blockade of Plevna and, when crossing the Imitli pass, made a decisive contribution to the fateful victory won in the battle of Shipka-Sheinovo, as a result of which a strong grouping of selected Turkish troops was eliminated, a gap was formed in the enemy defense and opened the road to Adrianople, which was soon taken.

In February 1878, Skobelev occupied San Stefano near Istanbul, thus putting an end to the war. All this created great popularity for the general in Russia, even more - in Bulgaria, where the memory of him "for 2007 was immortalized in the names of 382 squares, streets and monuments."

General I.V. Gurko

Iosif Vladimirovich Gurko (Romeiko-Gurko) (1828 - 1901) - Russian Field Marshal, best known for his victories in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

Born in Novogorod in the family of General V.I. Gurko.

Having waited for the fall of Plevna, Gurko moved on in mid-December and in a terrible cold and snowstorms again crossed the Balkans.

During the campaign, Gurko set an example of personal endurance, vigor and energy to everyone, sharing all the difficulties of the transition on an equal footing with the rank and file, personally supervised the ascent and descent of artillery along icy mountain paths, encouraged the soldiers with a living word, spent the night by the fires in the open air, was content, like them , crackers. After an 8-day difficult transition, Gurko descended into the Sofia Valley, moved west, and on December 19, after a stubborn battle, captured the fortified position of the Turks. Finally, on January 4, 1878, Russian troops led by Gurko liberated Sofia.

To organize the further defense of the country, Suleiman Pasha brought significant reinforcements from the eastern front of Shakir Pasha's army, but was defeated by Gurko in a three-day battle on January 2-4 near Plovdiv). On January 4, Plovdiv was liberated.

Wasting no time, Gurko moved Strukov's cavalry detachment to the fortified Andrianopol, which quickly occupied it, opening the way to Constantinople. In February 1878, troops under the command of Gurko occupied the town of San Stefano in the western suburbs of Constantinople, where on February 19 the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, which put an end to the 500-year-old Turkish yoke in Bulgaria.

Many contemporaries are convinced that in the past historians paid little attention to such an event as the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Briefly, but as accessible as possible, we will discuss this episode in the history of Russia. After all, he, like any war, in any case, the history of the state.

Let's try to analyze such an event as the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly, but as clearly as possible. First of all, for ordinary readers.

Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 (briefly)

The main opponents of this armed conflict were the Russian and Ottoman empires.

Many important events took place during it. The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly described in this article) left a mark on the history of almost all participating countries.

On the side of the Porte (an acceptable name for the history of the Ottoman Empire) were the Abkhaz, Dagestan and Chechen rebels, as well as the Polish Legion.

Russia, in turn, was supported by the Balkans.

Causes of the Russo-Turkish War

First of all, we will analyze the main causes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly).

The main reason for starting the war was a significant increase in national consciousness in some Balkan countries.

This kind of public sentiment was associated with the April Uprising in Bulgaria. The cruelty and ruthlessness with which the Bulgarian rebellion was suppressed forced some European countries (especially the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for the Christians in Turkey.

Another reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the defeat of Serbia in the Serbian-Montenegrin-Turkish war, as well as the failed Constantinople Conference.

The course of the war

On April 24, 1877, the Russian Empire officially declared war on the Porte. After the solemn parade in Chisinau, Archbishop Pavel read out the manifesto of Emperor Alexander II at a prayer service, which spoke of the beginning of hostilities against the Ottoman Empire.

In order to avoid the intervention of European states, the war had to be carried out "quickly" - in one company.

In May of the same year, the troops Russian Empire were introduced into the territory of the Romanian state.

Romanian troops, in turn, began to take an active part in the conflict on the side of Russia and its allies only three months after this event.

The organization and readiness of the Russian army was noticeably affected by the military reform carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander II.

The Russian troops included about 700 thousand people. The Ottoman Empire had about 281 thousand people. Despite the significant numerical superiority of the Russians, a significant advantage of the Turks was the possession and equipping of the army with modern weapons.

It is worth noting that the Russian Empire intended to spend the entire war on land. The fact is that the Black Sea was completely under the control of the Turks, and Russia was allowed to build its ships in this sea only in 1871. Naturally, in such a short time it was impossible to build a strong flotilla.

This armed conflict was fought in two directions: in Asia and Europe.

European theater of operations

As we mentioned above, with the outbreak of the war, Russian troops were brought into Romania. This was done to eliminate the Danubian fleet of the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the Danube crossings.

The Turkish river flotilla was unable to resist the actions of enemy sailors, and soon the Dnieper was forced by Russian troops. This was the first significant step towards Constantinople.

Despite the fact that the Turks were able to briefly delay the Russian troops and get time to fortify Istanbul and Edirne, they could not change the course of the war. Due to the inept actions of the military command of the Ottoman Empire, Plevna capitulated on December 10.

After this event, the current Russian army, which at that time numbered about 314 thousand soldiers, was preparing to go on the offensive again.

At the same time against the Porte resumes fighting Serbia.

On December 23, 1877, a raid through the Balkans was carried out by a Russian detachment, which at that moment was under the command of General Romeiko-Gurko, thanks to whom Sofia was occupied.

On December 27-28, a battle took place at Sheinovo, in which the troops of the Southern Detachment participated. The result of this battle was the encirclement and defeat of the 30 thousandth

On January 8, the troops of the Russian Empire, without any resistance, took one of the key points of the Turkish army - the city of Edirne.

Asian theater of operations

The main tasks of the Asian direction of the war were to ensure the security of their own borders, as well as the desire of the leadership of the Russian Empire to break the focus of the Turks exclusively on the European theater of operations.

The origin of the Caucasian company is considered to be the Abkhazian rebellion, which took place in May 1877.

Around the same time, Russian troops leave the city of Sukhum. It was only in August that he was brought back.

During operations in Transcaucasia, Russian troops captured many citadels, garrisons and fortresses: Bayazit, Ardagan, etc.

In the second half of the summer of 1877, the fighting was temporarily "frozen" for the reason that both sides were waiting for reinforcements to arrive.

Beginning in September, the Russians adopted siege tactics. So, for example, the city of Kars was taken, which opened the victorious path to Erzerum. However, his capture did not take place due to the conclusion of the San Stefano peace treaty.

The terms of this truce, in addition to Austria and England, were also dissatisfied with Serbia and Romania. It was believed that their merits in the war were not appreciated. This was the beginning of the birth of a new - Berlin - Congress.

The results of the Russian-Turkish war

The final stage will sum up the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly).

There was an expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire: more specifically, Bessarabia, which was lost during

In exchange for helping the Ottoman Empire to defend itself against the Russians in the Caucasus, England stationed its troops on the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean.

Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 (briefly reviewed by us in this article) played a big role in international relations.

It gave rise to a gradual departure from the confrontation between the Russian Empire and Great Britain for the reason that the countries began to focus more on their own interests (for example, Russia was interested in the Black Sea, and England was interested in Egypt).

Historians and the Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878. Briefly describe the event

Despite the fact that this war is not considered as a particularly significant event in the history Russian state, a considerable number of historians have been studying it. The most famous researchers, whose contribution was noted as the most significant, are L.I. Rovnyakova, O.V. Orlik, F.T. Konstantinova, E.P. Lvov, etc.

They studied the biographies of the participating commanders and military leaders, significant events, summed up the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in the presented publication. Naturally, all this was not in vain.

Economist A.P. Pogrebinsky believed that the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which briefly and quickly ended with the victory of the Russian Empire and its allies, had a huge impact primarily on the economy. An important role in this was played by the annexation of Bessarabia.

According to the Soviet politician Nikolai Belyaev, this military conflict was unfair, bearing an aggressive character. This statement, according to its author, is relevant both in relation to the Russian Empire and in relation to the Port.

It can also be said that the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in this article, first of all showed success military reform Alexander II, both organizationally and technically.

No one knows anything in advance. And the biggest trouble can befall a person in the best place, and the greatest happiness will find him - in the worst ..

Alexander Solzhenitsyn

In foreign policy Russian empire XIX century there were four wars with the Ottoman Empire. Russia won three of them, lost one. last war in the 19th century, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 began between the two countries, in which Russia won. The victory was one of the results of the military reform of Alexander 2. As a result of the war, the Russian Empire regained a number of territories, and also helped to acquire the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. In addition, for non-intervention in the war, Austria-Hungary received Bosnia, and England received Cyprus. The article is devoted to the description of the causes of the war between Russia and Turkey, its stages and main battles, the results and historical consequences of the war, as well as the analysis of the reaction of Western European countries to the growing influence of Russia in the Balkans.

What were the causes of the Russian-Turkish war?

Historians identify the following reasons for the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878:

1. Exacerbation of the "Balkan" issue.
2. Russia's desire to regain its status as an influential player in the foreign arena.
3. Russian support for the national movement of the Slavic peoples in the Balkans, seeking to expand its influence in the region. This caused intense resistance from the countries of Europe and the Ottoman Empire.
4. The conflict between Russia and Turkey over the status of the straits, as well as the desire for revenge for the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
5. Turkey's unwillingness to compromise, ignoring not only the demands of Russia, but also the European community.

Now let's look at the causes of the war between Russia and Turkey in more detail, since it is important to know and correctly interpret them. Despite the lost Crimean War, Russia, thanks to some reforms (primarily military) of Alexander II, again became an influential and strong state in Europe. This forced many politicians in Russia to think about revenge for the lost war. But this was not even the most important thing - much more important was the desire to return the right to have Black Sea Fleet. In many ways, to achieve this goal, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 was unleashed, which we will discuss briefly later.

In 1875, an uprising against Turkish rule began on the territory of Bosnia. The army of the Ottoman Empire brutally suppressed it, but already in April 1876 an uprising began in Bulgaria. Turkey dealt with this national movement as well. In protest against the policy towards the South Slavs, and also wishing to realize their territorial tasks, Serbia in June 1876 declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian army was much weaker than the Turkish one. Russia with early XIX centuries positioned itself as a defender of the Slavic peoples in the Balkans, so Chernyaev went to Serbia, as well as several thousand Russian volunteers.

After the defeat of the Serbian army in October 1876 near Dyunish, Russia called on Turkey to stop hostilities and guarantee the cultural rights of the Slavic people. The Ottomans, feeling the support of Britain, ignored the ideas of Russia. Despite the obviousness of the conflict, the Russian Empire tried to resolve the issue peacefully. This is evidenced by several conferences convened by Alexander II, in particular in January 1877 in Istanbul. Ambassadors and representatives of key European countries gathered there, but common decision did not come.

In March, an agreement was signed in London, which obliged Turkey to carry out reforms, but the latter completely ignored it. Thus, Russia was left with only one option for resolving the conflict - a military one. Before last Alexander 2 did not dare to start a war with Turkey, as he was worried that the war would again turn into resistance of European countries to Russian foreign policy. On April 12, 1877, Alexander II signed a manifesto declaring war on the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the emperor concluded an agreement with Austria-Hungary on the non-accession of the latter on the side of Turkey. In exchange for neutrality, Austria-Hungary was to receive Bosnia.

Map of the Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878

Major battles of the war

In the period April-August 1877, several important battles took place:

• Already on the first day of the war, Russian troops captured key Turkish fortresses on the Danube, and also crossed the Caucasian border.
• On April 18, Russian troops captured Bayazet, an important Turkish stronghold in Armenia. However, already in the period of June 7-28, the Turks tried to carry out a counteroffensive, the Russian troops withstood in a heroic struggle.
• At the beginning of the summer, General Gurko's troops captured the ancient Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo, and on July 5 they established control over the Shipka Pass, through which the road to Istanbul went.
• During May-August, Romanians and Bulgarians massively began to create partisan detachments to help the Russians in the war with the Ottomans.

Battle of Plevna in 1877

The main problem of Russia was that the inexperienced brother of the emperor Nikolai Nikolayevich commanded the troops. Therefore, individual Russian troops actually acted without a center, which means they acted as uncoordinated units. As a result, on July 7-18, two unsuccessful attempts to storm Plevna were made, as a result of which about 10 thousand Russians died. In August, the third assault began, which turned into a protracted blockade. At the same time, from August 9 until December 28, the heroic defense of the Shipka Pass lasted. In this sense, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, even briefly, seems to be very contradictory in terms of events and personalities.

In the autumn of 1877, a key battle took place near the fortress of Plevna. By order of Minister of War D. Milyutin, the army abandoned the assault on the fortress, and moved on to a systematic siege. The army of Russia, as well as its ally Romania, numbered about 83 thousand people, and the garrison of the fortress consisted of 34 thousand soldiers. Last Stand near Plevna passed on November 28, the Russian army emerged victorious and was finally able to capture the impregnable fortress. This was one of the biggest defeats of the Turkish army: 10 generals and several thousand officers were taken prisoner. In addition, Russia was establishing control over an important fortress, opening its way to Sofia. This was the beginning of a turning point in the Russian-Turkish war.

Eastern front

On the eastern front, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 also developed rapidly. In early November, another important strategic fortress, Kars, was captured. Due to simultaneous failures on two fronts, Turkey completely lost control over the movement of its own troops. On December 23, the Russian army entered Sofia.

In 1878, Russia entered with a complete advantage over the enemy. On January 3, the assault on Philipopol began, and already on the 5th the city was taken, the road to Istanbul was opened before the Russian Empire. On January 10, Russia enters Adrianople, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire is a fact, the Sultan is ready to sign peace on Russia's terms. Already on January 19, the parties agreed on a preliminary agreement, which significantly strengthened the role of Russia in the Black and Marmara Seas, as well as in the Balkans. This caused the strongest fear of the countries of Europe.

The reaction of major European powers to the successes of Russian troops

Most of all, England expressed dissatisfaction, which already at the end of January brought a fleet into the Sea of ​​​​Marmara, threatening an attack in the event of a Russian invasion of Istanbul. England demanded to move Russian troops away from the Turkish capital, and also to start developing a new treaty. Russia found itself in a difficult situation that threatened to repeat the scenario of 1853-1856, when the entry European troops violated the advantage of Russia, which led to the defeat. Given this, Alexander 2 agreed to revise the treaty.

On February 19, 1878, in San Stefano, a suburb of Istanbul, a new treaty was signed with the participation of England.

The main outcomes of the war were recorded in the San Stefano Peace Treaty:

• Russia annexed Bessarabia, as well as part of Turkish Armenia.
• Turkey paid the Russian Empire an indemnity of 310 million rubles.
• Russia received the right to have the Black Sea Fleet in Sevastopol.
• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence, and Bulgaria received this status 2 years later, after the final withdrawal of Russian troops from there (which were there in case Turkey tried to return the territory).
• Bosnia and Herzegovina received the status of autonomy, but were actually occupied by Austria-Hungary.
• In peacetime, Turkey was supposed to open ports for all ships that were heading to Russia.
• Turkey was obliged to organize reforms in the cultural sphere (in particular for the Slavs and Armenians).

However, these conditions did not suit the European states. As a result, in June-July 1878, a congress was held in Berlin, at which some decisions were revised:

1. Bulgaria was divided into several parts, and only the northern part received independence, while the southern part returned to Turkey.
2. The contribution amount has been reduced.
3. England received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary the official right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina.

war heroes

The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 traditionally became a "minute of glory" for many soldiers and military leaders. In particular, several Russian generals became famous:

• Joseph Gurko. Hero of the capture of the Shipka Pass, as well as the capture of Adrianople.
• Mikhail Skobilev. He led the heroic defense of the Shipka Pass, as well as the capture of Sofia. Received the nickname White General”, and among the Bulgarians is considered a national hero.
• Mikhail Loris-Melikov. Hero of the battles for Bayazet in the Caucasus.

In Bulgaria there are over 400 monuments erected in honor of the Russians who fought in the war against the Ottomans in 1877-1878. There are many memorial plaques, mass graves, etc. One of the most famous monuments is the Freedom Monument on the Shipka Pass. There is also a monument to Emperor Alexander 2. There are also many settlements named after Russians. Thus, the Bulgarian people thank the Russians for the liberation of Bulgaria from Turkey, and the cessation of Muslim rule, which lasted more than five centuries. During the war years, the Bulgarians themselves called the Russians "brothers", and this word remained in the Bulgarian language as a synonym for "Russians".

History reference

The historical significance of the war

The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 ended with the complete and unconditional victory of the Russian Empire, but despite the military success, European states put up a swift resistance to the strengthening of Russia's role in Europe. In an effort to weaken Russia, England and Turkey insisted that not all the aspirations of the southern Slavs were realized, in particular, not the entire territory of Bulgaria gained independence, and Bosnia passed from the Ottoman occupation to the Austrian one. As a result, the national problems of the Balkans became even more complicated, as a result turning this region into a "powder keg of Europe". It was here that the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne took place, becoming the pretext for the start of the First World War. This is generally a funny and paradoxical situation - Russia wins victories on the battlefield, but over and over again suffers defeats in the diplomatic fields.

Russia regained its lost territories, the Black Sea Fleet, but never achieved the desire to dominate the Balkan Peninsula. This factor was also used by Russia when joining the First world war. For the Ottoman Empire, which was completely defeated, the idea of ​​​​revenge was preserved, which forced it to enter into a world war against Russia. These were the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which we briefly reviewed today.

If we briefly talk about the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, about the reasons that provoked its beginning, then, first of all, it is worth mentioning the brutal oppression of the Christian population of the Balkan territories occupied by the Ottoman Empire and included in its composition. This happened with the connivance and implementation by France and England of the "Turkophile" policy, which "turned a blind eye" to the killings of the civilian population and, in particular, to the wild atrocities of the Bashi-Bazouks.

background

The relationship of the two empires, Russian and Ottoman, from the moment they were founded, has undergone a number of significant disagreements, which led to frequent cruel wars. In addition to territorial disputes, in particular, over the territory of the Crimean peninsula, the prerequisites for the emergence of conflicts were religious differences based on the fact that Russia was the successor of Byzantium, captured and plundered by Muslim Turks, who turned Christian shrines into Muslim ones. Raids on Russian settlements, the capture of inhabitants into slavery often led to military clashes. In short, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. was provoked precisely by the cruelty and intolerance of the Turks towards the Orthodox population.

Contributed to the development of Russian-Turkish disagreements and the position of European states, in particular Britain, who did not want the strengthening of Russia, which led to the Ottoman Empire's policy of toughening and oppressing enslaved Christians, mostly Orthodox: Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs and other Balkan Slavs.

Conflict, its prerequisites

The events that predetermined the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 can be briefly described as the struggle for the independence of the Balkan peoples, mainly Slavic and Orthodox. After the end of the Crimean War, the Treaty of Paris was signed, its Article 9 directly obliged the government of the Ottoman Empire to provide Christians living on its territory with equal rights with Muslims. But things did not go beyond the Sultan's decree.

The Ottoman Empire, in its essence, could not provide all residents with equality, as evidenced by the events of 1860 in Lebanon and the events of 1866-1869. on the island of Crete. The Balkan Slavs continued to be subjected to cruel oppression.

By that time in Russia there had been a change in domestic political sentiment towards the Turkish question in society, the strengthening of the power of the Russian army. The prerequisites for conducting preparations for the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 can be summarized in two paragraphs. The first - successful reform in the Russian army, carried out by Alexander II. The second is the policy of rapprochement and alliance with Prussia, which was emphasized by the new chancellor, the outstanding Russian politician Prince A. M. Gorchakov.

The main reasons for the start of the war

Briefly, the causes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 can be characterized by two points. As the struggle of the Balkan peoples against the Turkish enslavers and the strengthening of Russia, which wants to help the Slav brothers in their just struggle and seeks to take revenge for the lost war of 1853-1856.

The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly) was the summer rebellion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the prerequisites for which were an unjustified and exorbitant increase in taxes imposed by the Turkish government, which at that time was financially insolvent.

In the spring of 1876, for the same reason, there was an uprising in Bulgaria. More than 30,000 Bulgarians were killed during its suppression. Irregular units of bashi-bazouks distinguished themselves with special atrocities. All this became the property of the European public, which created an atmosphere of sympathy for the Balkan peoples and criticism of their government, which, thanks to tacit consent, contributed to this.

A similar wave of protests swept across Russia. The public of the country, concerned about the growth of violence against the Slavic peoples of the Balkans, expressed their dissatisfaction. Thousands of volunteers expressed their desire to help Serbia and Montenegro, which declared war on Turkey in 1876. Having suffered a defeat from the troops of the Porte, Serbia asked for help from European states, including Russia. The Turks declared a month-long truce. Let's say briefly: the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. was predetermined.

Russia's entry into the war

In October, the truce ended, the situation for Serbia became threatening, only the lightning entry of Russia into the war and the opportunity to end it in one company could deter England and France from invading. These countries, under the pressure of anti-Turkish public sentiment, decide to send their expeditionary forces to the Balkans. Russia, in turn, having held meetings with a number of European powers, such as Austria-Hungary, and having secured their neutrality, decides to send troops to the territory of Turkey.

Russia declares war on Turkey 04/12/1877 Russian troops enter the territory of Romania. The army of this country decides to act on its side, but implements the decision only in August.

The course of the war

Let's try to describe the course of the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878) briefly. In June, Russian troops, with 185 thousand soldiers, concentrated on the left bank of the Danube, in the Zimnitsa region. The command of the Russian army was led by Grand Duke Nikolai.

In the Turkish army opposing Russia, there were more than 200 thousand people, most of whom were garrisons of fortresses. It was commanded by Marshal Abdulkerim Nadir Pasha.

To advance the Russian army, it was necessary to cross the Danube, on which the Turks had a military flotilla. By railway light boats were delivered, which, with the help of minefields, prevented its action. The troops successfully crossed and went on the offensive, moving inland. The Russian army advanced in two directions: in the Caucasus and the Balkans. The Balkans were paramount, since, having captured Constantinople, one could talk about Turkey's withdrawal from the war.

The main battle took place during the passage of the Shipka Pass. In this battle, the Russians won and continued to move towards Constantinople, where in the area of ​​​​the fortress of Plevna they met with serious resistance from the Turks who had settled in it. And only in November the situation changed in favor of the Russians. Winning the battles, Russia in January 1878 took the city of Andrianopol.

Conclusion of a peace treaty

As a result of the war, on March 16, 1878, an agreement was signed in San Stefano. He did not suit a number of leading European countries led by England. In addition, Britain held secret negotiations with Turkey, as a result of which it occupied the island of Cyprus in exchange for protecting the Turks from the Russians.

As a result of behind-the-scenes intrigues, for which England was a master, the Berlin Treaty of 07/01/1878 was signed. As a result of its signing, most of the clauses of the San Stefano Treaty were annulled.

The results of the war

Let us briefly summarize the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. As a result of the war, Russia returned the previously lost southern part of Bessarabia and the Kars region, populated mainly by Armenians. The territory of the island of Cyprus was occupied by England.

In 1885, a single principality of Bulgaria was formed, after the Balkan wars the Kingdom of Bulgaria became sovereign. Serbia, Romania and Montenegro gained independence.