Determine the correct statement The Black Sea is the largest sea in Europe in terms of area. The Black Sea is the largest sea in Europe by area. The Black Sea is an inland sea of ​​the Atlantic Ocean basin, washing the shores of Ukraine in the south. The Black Sea is an inland sea of ​​the Atlantic Ocean basin, washing the shores of Ukraine in the south. The Black Sea is an inland sea washing the territory of Ukraine in the east. The Black Sea is an inland sea washing the territory of Ukraine in the east.

Distribute the bays of the Black Sea according to their location: 1. Karkinitsky 2. Feodosia 3. Kalamitsky 4. Dzharylgachsky

Establish a correspondence between the numerical value and the characteristics of the Black Sea A coastline length B average depth C maximum depth D sea area

Complete the sentence - The average salinity of the Black Sea is - The Black Sea is located in climatic zones: The Black Sea washes the shores of the countries:

The Black Sea is rich in biological resources 270 species of algae: Brown algae - scytosiphon Scytosiphon lomentaria red callitamnion corymbose Green algae Enteromorpha red red Laurencia Laurencia sp red algae Ceramium ciliate Red algae Phyllophora ribbed

Fish catch by countries annually Turkey t Ukraine t Russia t In 2010, the entire fishery was 86 users of living resources (162 units of small size fleet and 59 units of fishing vessels). The catch is 5 tons of Black Sea sprats of the Black Sea anchovy and 279 tons of horse mackerel.

Cargo turnover of the Black Sea ports Novorossiysk (Russia, 76.2 million tons) Constanta (Romania, 36.4 million tons) Caspian Pipeline Consortium (Russia, 34.9 million tons) Odessa (Ukraine, 24.7 million tons) .) Tuapse (Russia, 18.5 million tons) Southern Commercial Sea (Ukraine, 18.2 million tons) Ilyichevsk (Ukraine, 15.9 million tons) Erdemir (Turkey, 13 million tons)

Black Sea and shipping Oil tanker is capable of carrying tons of cargo at a time Passenger liner 3000 people. Bus man. 90% of export and import goods are transported by ships. It is 14 times cheaper than air, 7 times cheaper than land, 3.5 times cheaper than rail.

Income from the holiday season 2012 Tourists had a rest Collection of taxes from sanatorium - resort institutions amounted to 50 million hryvnia. Tourist tax amounted to UAH 6.4 million.

Oceans and seas are the birthplace of all living things, they are waterways and sources of important food resources, treasuries of minerals and a source of energy.

The importance of the oceans as waterways is well known. Navigation is considered one of the factors that contributed to the development of cities and entire countries. The seas have long been the main, and cheap, means of communication between continents. They contributed to the development of trade between states, significantly distant from each other.

As sources of food resources, the oceans and seas, if used wisely, are practically inexhaustible. For comparison, we present the following data: the thickness of the fertile soil layer on land is on average 0.5 - 1 m; in the oceans and seas, the thickness of the surface zone inhabited by plants is approximately 100-200 m.

The oceans contain 43% of the biomass of the entire planet, fish resources - about 200 million tons. Huge resources of mollusks, crustaceans, algae, zooplankton.

The sea is a huge source of minerals. About 5 million tons of table salt, approximately 300 thousand tons of magnesium, 100 thousand tons of bromine are extracted from sea water annually. From algae

extract iodine. Oil is produced on the shelf. The sea contains many other mineral deposits in the form of various chemicals that will be used in the future Iron, manganese, copper, nickel, cobalt and other elements that lie at the bottom of the oceans in nodules have already been explored and begun to be extracted. Let them be estimated at 350 billion tons. These are really inexhaustible reserves of valuable minerals.

The sea is a huge source of energy. It is formed as a result of the movement of water - waves and currents. its use is just beginning. So far, attention has been paid to the tidal movement of water. The constant temperature difference between the surface and deep waters of the oceans is an almost inexhaustible source of energy. This energy is called hydrothermal. It operates the world's first power plant, built near Abidjan (Cote d'Ivoire), with a capacity of 8 thousand kW. The use of the energy of sea waves and surf has not yet begun, which amounts to tens of millions of kilowatt-hours per year from 1 km of coastline.

There is heavy water in the oceans. its share is 1/5600, but this is enough to fill the Black Sea basin. Heavy hydrogen, which is the source of thermonuclear fusion, scientists count 2.5 ∙ 10 13 tons. Only 1 g of deuterium, when converted into helium in a reactor, releases 100,000 kW of energy.

According to the convention, the states whose coasts are washed by the seas own territorial waters up to 12 miles wide. Further, up to 24 miles from the coast, there is an adjacent zone over which the state exercises customs and other control. Behind it, up to 200 miles, is an economic zone where a special legal regime has been established. In this zone, the coastal state has sovereign rights to explore, develop and preserve biological and mineral resources, as well as to other types of economic use of water spaces.

More than 120 countries have signed the Convention on the Law of the Sea.

The dissection of the coastline

Each ocean has its own peculiarities in the division of coastlines.

The shores of the Pacific Ocean are extremely diverse. So, along the American coast, the Andes and Cordillera mountain ranges rise. Giant breaking waves approach them perpendicularly from the open ocean and destroy their feet. There are few deposits here. Only occasionally come across accumulative terraces. So, the eastern shores are abrasive.

The western shores of the ocean are the shores of the marginal seas. Since the surf and waves are insignificant here, there are more accumulative shores along the plains of Asia, although some abrasive-denudation ones occur. Where mountain ranges approach the ocean at a significant angle, rias shores form. A lot of terrigenous material falls on the coast of Asia, from which sandy ridges and ridges are formed at high tides.

Organogenic coral and mangrove coasts stretch for hundreds and thousands of kilometers in the equatorial-tropical latitudes from the Australo-Asian seas to the Tasman Sea. Along Australia for 2300 km from the Gulf of Papua to Fraser Island stretches a unique strip of coral structures. It protected a shallow lagoon from the ocean, the width of which reaches several tens of kilometers. Coral origin is a number of low islands from the Tonga archipelago, the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Line Islands, Tuamotu, etc.

In areas of ancient and modern glaciation in both hemispheres, in particular in Kamchatka, Alaska, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, mostly fjords of the coast.

In the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, there are mainly fjord coasts and skerries. The length of some fjords reaches several tens of kilometers, and the Sognefjord in the North Sea stretches for 220 km with a width of 1.5-6.0 km and a depth of 1245 m. Its rocky shores rise to a height of 1500 m.

The slopes of the fjord coasts of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, partly the southern part of South America have traces of glacial grinding.

The coasts of Sweden, Finland, Iceland and Canada are characterized by a complex fragmentation of skerries, many islands and shallows - the remains of submerged or semi-submerged sheep's foreheads, drumlin, hills of terminal moraines.

Along the plains of Europe, North and South America, there are mainly accumulative shores, in some places - abrasive-denudation.

In the equatorial-tropical latitudes, mangrove shores are found, especially in places protected from the surf. Mangrove trees have deep "stilted" and aerial "breathing" roots that prevent water circulation and contribute to the accumulation of sediments, the rise of the bottom and the advance of land into the sea. There are only such shores in the Gulf of Mexico and Guinea.

In the Adriatic Sea, the Dalmatian type of coast. They are characteristic of the highlands flooded by the sea, the ridges and valleys of which are located parallel to the coastline. When flooded, islands, bays, stretching along the coast are formed.

The Aegean Sea has a mostly lobed coastline with large bays in the form of lobes, which are distinguished by massive peninsulas.

Features of the coasts of the Indian Ocean are determined by the geological structure of the continents and the action of wave processes. Since most of the ocean is located within the equatorial-tropical zone, coral and mangrove shores are common here. Coral coasts are characteristic of the coasts of Northern and Northwestern Australia and the island of Madagascar. There are many coral reefs along the Indonesian coast, less mangroves.

The shores of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are formed in accordance with the rift structure of these basins. Many bay forms are associated with the skid structure of the marginal zones of the African continent and the Arabian Peninsula. There are many Grebennoy bays - Sherm, coral structures that make navigation difficult. The development of igneous and hard sedimentary rocks in many areas of the Somali Peninsula and the coast of Arabia contribute to the spread of denudation-type coasts slightly modified by the sea. The eastern coast of Africa is characterized by bay dissection (rias type), associated with the flooding of the mouths of the rivers during the transgression of the sea. The shores of the Persian Gulf and the Hindustan Peninsula are mainly abrasive-accumulative, although there are also mangroves here.

The Indian Ocean coast of the Malay Peninsula and the Sunda Islands is mostly abrasive-accumulative, with shallow bays. Its division is associated with volcanism and the tectonic structure of the island land. Almost along the entire perimeter of the islands there are developed coral reefs and mangroves. Only the island of Sumatra is characterized by low-lying accumulative shores covered with mangroves.

So, a feature of the Indian Ocean is that, due to its intertropical geographical position, most of its shores are coral and mangrove.

At the same time, ice sometimes slips from the Antarctic coast, breaking off in steep, high ledges.

The variety of coastal relief in the Arctic Ocean results in a wide variety of types of ocean coasts. Their development is affected by the influence of floating sea ice. It weakens the waves and limits the period of their action.

An important role in the formation of coasts is played by frost weathering, which is active in fractured coarse-grained igneous rocks. As a result of weathering and marine abrasion, special forms of coastal cliffs arise - gutters, remnants-kekurs, niches, caves.

On the shores, where sedimentary rocks (shales and sandstones) exfoliate, the effect of frosty weathering decreases, but abrasion intensifies. The coastline in these places recedes under the action of wave erosion.

Thermal abrasion is one of the main processes of coast formation in the polar seas. Morphologically, it manifests itself in the formation of niches, followed by the collapse of the upper part of the banks. This process causes a significant retreat of the coastline.

There are many fjords and skerries on the coasts of Taimyr, the Scandinavian Peninsula, Greenland, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. These forms of coasts were formed under the action of glaciers.

The shores of the White, Bareniovy, Kara seas are mostly high abrasive with small bays. At the same time, land areas on the shores of the Beaufort, Chukchi, Laptev, East Siberian seas are flooded. Therefore, their shores are mainly folded, in some areas they are deltaic, in some places lagoonal.

Geological past of the Black Sea

The turbulent geological past fell to the lot of the area where the Black Sea is now located. Therefore, in the modern appearance of the reservoir, no, no, but traces of certain distant events are visible.

Before the beginning of the Tertiary period, that is, in times remote from us by 30-40 million years, a vast ocean basin stretched from west to east through Southern Europe and Central Asia, which communicated with the Atlantic Ocean in the west, and with the Pacific Ocean in the east. It was the salt sea of ​​Tethys. By the middle of the Tertiary period, as a result of the uplift and subsidence of the earth's crust, Tethys separated first from the Pacific Ocean, and then from the Atlantic.

In the Miocene (from 3 to 7 million years ago) significant mountain-building movements take place, the Alps, Carpathians, Balkans, and the Caucasus Mountains appear. As a result, the Tethys Sea shrinks in size and is divided into a series of brackish basins. One of them is the Sarmatian Sea - it stretches from the present Vienna to the foot of the Tien Shan.

At the end of the Miocene and the beginning of the Pliocene (2-3 million years ago), the Sarmatian basin decreases to the size of the Meotic Sea (basin). In the Pliocene (1.5-2 million years ago), an almost fresh Pontic lake-sea appeared on the site of the salty Meotic Sea. At the end of the Pliocene (less than 1 million years ago), the Pontic lake-sea decreased in size to the boundaries of the Chaudinsky lake-sea.

As a result of ice melting at the end of the Mindel glaciation (about 400-500 thousand years ago), the Chaudin Sea is filled with melt water and turns into the Ancient Euxinian basin. In outline, it resembled the modern Black and Azov Seas.

During the Ris-Wurm interglacial period (100-150 thousand years ago), the so-called Karangat basin, or the Karangat Sea, is formed. Its salinity is higher than that of the modern Black Sea. 18-20 thousand years ago, on the site of the Karangat Sea, there was already the Novoevksinskoye Lake-Sea. This coincided with the end of the last Wurm glaciation. This went on for about 10 thousand years or a little more, after which the newest phase in the life of the reservoir began - the modern Black Sea was formed. Analyzing various periods of the history of the Black Sea, we can conclude that the current phase is just an episode between the past and future transformations. One would have to fully agree with this, if not for one essential circumstance: Man. The evolution of man was so rapid that from now on he can successfully confront the elements. Therefore, even now the Black Sea is under the growing influence of human economic activity and, in accordance with this anthropogenic factor, is changing its shape, salinity, fauna, flora and other indicators.

Dimensions of the Black Sea

The Black Sea is a fairly large body of water with an area of ​​420,325 square kilometers. Its average depth is 1290 liters, and the maximum reaches 2212 liters and is located north of Cape Inebolu on the coast of Turkey. The calculated volume of water is 547,015 cubic kilometers. The coasts of the sea are little indented, with the exception of the northwestern part, where there are a number of bays and coves. There are few islands in the Black Sea. One of them - Serpentine - is located forty kilometers east of the Danube Delta, the other - Schmidt (Berezan) Island - is located near Ochakov and the third, Kefken, is not far from the Bosphorus Strait. The area of ​​the largest island - Snake - does not exceed one and a half square kilometers. The Black Sea exchanges waters with two other seas: through the Kerch Strait in the northeast with the Sea of ​​Azov and through the Bosphorus Strait in the southwest with the Sea of ​​Marmara.

The bottom of the Black Sea resembles a plate with its relief - it is deep and even with shallow edges along the periphery. The Black Sea contains the entire periodic table. Even gold in the amount of about 100 thousand kilograms could be mined if the entire Black Sea was evaporated and the metal was managed to be extracted from 10,940,000,000 tons of all kinds of salts that would remain in the sediment. The Black Sea also has other marine properties. It is transparent to a depth of 30 meters, casts a real ocean blue, explodes with storms. Waves rise to a height of 6-8 meters.

In summer, water off the coast warms up to a temperature of 25-28 degrees, and in the center of the sea near the surface to 23-24 degrees. At a depth of 150 meters, the temperature is 6.7.8 degrees throughout the year. Deeper it rises somewhat - up to 9 degrees. During the winter months, the surface water temperature fluctuates between 12-13 degrees.

The essential difference of the Black Sea is that the Black Sea water, according to marine concepts, is strongly undersalted. In each kilogram of water, 18 grams of salt are barely collected (and it should be 35-36 grams), and even less in the northwestern and northeastern regions. Even at the very bottom, salinity does not exceed 22.4%. And this is explained by the fact that the Black Sea is very constrained by the narrow Bosphorus, the fresh waters of many rivers flow in: the Danube, the Dnieper, the Dniester, the full-flowing rivers of the Caucasus. The total volume of river flow into the Black Sea exceeds 300 cubic kilometers per year.

Treasures of the Black Sea

Many features of the Black Sea are, in fact, its main wealth. These are such different categories as reserves of biological, chemical, mineral and other raw materials valuable for the natural economy, favorable climatic conditions that have turned the shores into virtually a continuous health resort, the beauty of sea and coastal landscapes - a source of relaxation and inspiration.

Plants and animals live in the Black Sea, representing all the steps of the "ladder" of living beings of our planet: from the most primitive - bacteria, to the most advanced - mammals. The number of species found in the Black Sea is relatively small. Scientists count here up to 2000 species of animals, including one and a half hundred species of fish. And yet, the species poverty of the Black Sea does not mean the poverty of its biological resources or biomass. In terms of the mass of living matter per unit surface and in terms of biological productivity, that is, in terms of the rate of reproduction of this biomass, the Black Sea, although inferior to the same North or Barents Seas, may well compete with the Mediterranean, and even surpass it. The advantages of the Black Sea as a reservoir are already mentioned here, and, in particular, the fact that it is abundantly fertilized by the waters of large lowland rivers - the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper and those that flow into the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov - the Kuban and Don. The nutrients supplied by these rivers compensate for the slow vertical mixing of water masses, which in other seas is the main mechanism that ensures their high fertility.

All animals and plants living in the sea, according to their structure and way of life, are divided into several life forms. The main ones are benthos, plankton, nekton and neuston.

Benthos (ancient Greek "benthos" - depth) is all animals and plants that live on the bottom of the sea. They can attach themselves to rocks and other hard objects like algae and mussels, burrow into sand and silt like various worms, or crawl along the bottom like crabs.

Plankton (from the ancient Greek "planktos" - floating), unlike benthos, does not inhabit the seabed, but the water column. These are mainly microscopic animals and plants, which are united by the fact that they soar in the water at different depths and move along with the water along the will of the currents. They are not able to swim against the current and choose their paths in the open sea. Of the plankton, only jellyfish have a solid size and some autonomy in movement.

Nekton (from the ancient Greek "nektos" - floating) - unites actively swimming creatures, such as fish, dolphins, whales and other large organisms. They also inhabit the water column, but, unlike plankton, they can, at will, move long distances along the horizons, including against the current.

Neuston (from the ancient Greek "nein" - to swim) inhabits the surface film of the seas and oceans. These are small creatures, mainly the larvae of many marine animals, which are attracted by the sea-atmosphere interface with their favorable food and other conditions, especially useful for young organisms. Neuston is divided into hyponeuston and epineuston. The first consists of animals and plants that live under a film of surface tension of water. Most of these organisms Epineuston unites those species that live on the airy upper side of the surface film. These are some insects, as well as a microscopic population of foam flakes: bacteria, protozoa, algae and others.

Another part of marine plants is more familiar to everyone who has been by the sea. These are algae that grow on rocks, stones and other underwater objects and form plant benthos, or phytobenthos. Many animals feed on them, in them they find shelter from enemies, a place for laying eggs.

The Black Sea is inhabited by 277 species of algae, which are divided into three large groups - green, brown and red.

The main part of algae grows at depths up to 5-10 meters, but occasionally they are also found at a depth of 125 meters. In addition to algae, which belong to low plants, several species of higher plants also grow in the Black Sea. Among them, the first place in terms of distribution and proven reserves belongs to zoster or sea grass. Zostera feed on both sea creatures and waterfowl.

The world of bacteria is very abundant and diverse in the Black Sea. This is the only group of living beings that live here from the surface to the very depths. True, deeper than 200 meters, where there is no oxygen, there are only so-called anaerobic bacteria that can develop in the complete absence of free oxygen in the water. Anaerobic bacteria of the Black Sea depths, reducing sulfate compounds (sulfates), produce hydrogen sulfide. It saturates almost 87% of the water mass of the entire Black Sea.

Above 200 meters there are other groups of bacteria that need oxygen. In the northwestern part of the Black Sea in summer, there are 60-110 thousand bacteria per cubic centimeter of sea water, and if you take water at the very surface of the film, in the neuston, there will be from 1 to 75 million specimens in the same volume!

Thanks mainly to bacteria, the sea does not rot, and the organic remains are subjected to biological oxidation and mineralization to a state that makes them possible for consumption by plants.

Above sea level, content with the surf, periodically wetting them, closely pressed against the surface of stones and rocks, mollusks live - a sea saucer or patella and littorina. These molluscs are especially widespread along the coasts of the Crimea and the Caucasus.

Sea acorns or balanuses are extremely numerous on solid underwater soils.

Sponges form an important group of animals attached to stones and rocks. There are 26 species of sponges in the Black Sea. Sponges are active biofilters. One individual with a volume of about 10 cubic centimeters can filter from 100 to 200 liters of sea water per day.

Anemones, or sea flowers, are very effective.

Animals attached to a solid substrate also include the himania, sea squirts, calyptrea mollusks or the Chinese bulb, and the famous oyster.

Among the attached animals and algae of solid soils, there are always many mobile species that crawl and swim in these "wilds". Very common isopod crayfish, or sea cockroaches. There are up to 30 species of them in the Black Sea.

Among the organisms that have stuck around underwater rocks and stones, there are ordinary graceful shrimps. Nowadays, there are more than a dozen species of shrimp, but most of them are small, with a body length of up to 3-4 centimeters.

Everyone who visits the sea is attracted by crabs. Almost two dozen species of crabs are found in the Black Sea. Of course, the mussel is a commercial object and a delicious "seafood", but in places of mass bathing its main purpose is biofiltration.

Communities, or biocenoses, of sandy soil are found mainly in shallow water, near rivers and flat shores. They are most common in the northwestern part of the sea, characterized by poor algae and an abundance of sand-burrowing species. The permanent "tramps" of this biocenosis are hermit crabs (cancer diogenes and clibanaria).

On sandy soils with an admixture of silt, you can find many nass gastropods. They are also called "ram", "navadia" in different places of the Black Sea coast. On coarse-grained sand, at depths of 10-30 meters or more, there lives a very interesting organism for science - the lancelet. In its internal organization, it occupies an intermediate position between invertebrates and fish and can serve as a classic illustration of the history of the development and origin of the type of vertebrates. The Black Sea is the only one of our seas where the lancelet is found.

You can complete the list of inhabitants of sandy soils with a sand shell or mia. Like a rapana, she somehow, regardless of the will of man, settled in the Black Sea, at the end of the fifties.

The main part of the nekton is formed by fish. There are up to 180 species of them in the Black Sea.

By their origin, they well reflect the geological past and modern connections of the reservoir. In the scientific literature, it is customary to divide the Black Sea fish species into four groups.

The first group is represented by people from fresh waters. They, as a rule, fall into the sea against their will; the current carries them into a foreign element. Near the mouths of the rivers, most often in the spring come across carp, bream, pike perch, ram, sabrefish.

The second group consists of species that lived in the once desalinated reservoirs that were on the site of the current Black Sea and have survived to this day. They are called relic species, or Pontic relics. These fish retain their attachment to desalinated areas, to brackish estuaries, and most of them enter rivers to spawn. These are sturgeons, most types of herring, gobies - more than two dozen species in total. Among the sturgeons in the Black Sea, the most famous is the beluga - the largest fish in our sea (weight does not exceed 200-300 kilograms). These fish grow slowly, maturing for spawning late. Therefore, all changes in the water regime of rivers associated with the construction of dams, water consumption for irrigation, its pollution with various wastes, etc. are reflected in the natural reproduction of fish in the Black Sea.

To maintain and increase their numbers in Russia, special plants are being built and operated, where artificial insemination of eggs, its incubation and rearing of larvae are carried out.

The third group of Black Sea fish (eight species) also consists of relics of bygone times. In confirmation of their northern origin, these fish have retained their attachment to cold water, therefore they stay mainly in the bottom layers. As their representatives, one can name sprat, whiting, gloss and katran.

The fourth largest group of fish are Mediterranean migrants. They number over a hundred species. These are fish that have penetrated here over the past 5-6 millennia through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. They are content at all stages of life with depths of no more than 150-180 meters.

The Mediterranean invaders include such well-known fish as anchovy, garfish, mullet, bluefish, horse mackerel, sultanka, mackerel, flounder and others.

So, fish form the third step of the Black Sea ecological pyramid, because they feed on invertebrates that make up its second step. The last stage is represented by consumers of fish - dolphins and some birds.

In fact, there are at least three main ecological pyramids in the Black Sea - for the bottom, for the water column, and for the surface film. One of the important tasks of science is to determine the clear qualitative and numerical characteristics of these pyramids, because the protection of the living resources of the sea and their increase is largely reduced to the "repair" or superstructure of the step of the pyramids. Moreover, any deterioration in living conditions in a reservoir is reflected, first of all, on the upper steps of the pyramid, since highly organized beings, in general, are more vulnerable than low-organized ones, but if some factor affects the base of the pyramid, then big changes overtake the entire pyramid.

The main wealth of the Black Sea is its climatic factors, which brought the warmest of the seas of our country the well-deserved fame of the all-Union health resort, and the reserves of biological raw materials should be exploited to such an extent as not to jeopardize the normal existence of the reservoir. This, in fact, is the main essence of the principle of the rational use of natural resources, to which much attention is paid in the national economic plans of Russia.

The Black Sea is also the richest pantry of all kinds of minerals and metals. In sea water, they are found mainly in the form of salts.

The main components of the salt composition of the Black Sea water can be depicted as follows:

All other components, taken together, make up less than one and a half percent of the total mass.

Gas and oil exploration is being carried out on the northwestern shelf of the Black Sea. The exploitation of these subsoil gifts is usually associated with significant water pollution and corresponding damage to the biological resources of the sea and resort use. Therefore, in the interests of observing the principle of rational use of natural resources, the need to extract such types of raw materials as oil from the Black Sea must be strictly and comprehensively considered.

Features of the current state of the layer of existence of oxygen with hydrogen sulfide in the Black Sea

Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide occurs mainly in the layer of its existence with oxygen (C-layer), which is the upper boundary of the anaerobic zone of the Black Sea. Although the rates of hydrogen sulfide oxidation by thionic bacteria in the bottom layer and in the chemosynthesis zone at a depth of 150-500 meters have not been estimated, they seem to be only an insignificant part of the rate of hydrogen sulfide oxidation in the C-layer. The thickness of the C-layer, the depth of its boundaries, the shape of their relief, the nature of the distribution of oxygen in it and the rate of oxidation of the latter depend on the fineness of the stratification of water, the hydrodynamic conditions for the intensity of mass transfer, the rate of sulfate reduction, and can be used as indicators of the state and trends of the oxygen regime of anaerobic zone change in oxygen concentration on a standard horizon of 50 m - the upper boundary of the main pycnocline. The generalization of the materials of observations of the oxygen regime of the open part of the sea showed that the range of annual changes in the oxygen concentration at the 50 m horizon is 1.79 ml. l -1 , its average content by months of the year ranged from the minimum in April (4.73 ml. l -1) to the maximum in September (6.98 ml l -1), depths with a relative oxygen content in water of 10% (less 1 ml l -1) were 70-150 m and remained almost constant throughout the year. Studies on modeling the oxidative transformation of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide compounds in the Black Sea were associated primarily with the study of the topical issue of the rise of the upper boundary of the hydrogen sulfide zone and the influence of many environmental factors on the position of this boundary in the sea. In the early stages of the study of the problem, attention was paid to:

The study of the mechanism of oxidation of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide forms in sea water and the development of a mathematical model for the oxidative transformation of sulfur compounds.

Modeling of the fine chemical structure and distribution of sulfur and oxygen forms in the layer of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide existence (C-layer).

Solving the inverse problem and calculating the reaction and mass transfer rates, as well as the variability of the concentration of substances in the c-layer in the shallow part of the marine ecosystem, using the vertical distribution of reagents.

Formalization of the dependence of the rate of oxidation of hydrogen sulfide on the ratio of oxygen: hydrogen sulfide for the correct calculation of the dynamics of the C-layer and the position of the upper boundary of the anaerobic zone.

To identify the impact of the main factors (intensity of oxygen consumption, the power of hydrogen sulfide sources and vertical exchange) on the dynamics of the upper boundary of the anaerobic zone and to study the possibility of its emergence to the surface.

Analysis of socio-ecological aspects of the problem of the dynamics of the hydrogen sulfide zone in the Black Sea.

Analysis of the factors that determine the vertical position of the C-layer in shallow areas of the sea.

The main goal of current research is associated with the formalization of existing theoretical ideas about the conditions for the formation of the anaerobic zone and the imitation of a retrospective picture of its development and evolution using mathematical modeling. The solution of this issue will make it possible to consider many debatable issues at a qualitatively new level (the time scale of the formation of the anaerobic zone in the Black Sea; the severity and significance of the main hydrological and hydrochemical processes during the formation of the anaerobic zone; the main flows of reagents and their balance), as well as to predict short- and long-term dynamics of the upper boundary of the anaerobic zone under changing natural environmental conditions and existing anthropogenic impacts.

The results obtained for the problem under study: a mathematical model was built to study the retrospective picture of the formation of the anaerobic zone of the Black Sea based on all known information about the formation of the salinity structure of the sea, the rates of sulfate reduction and oxidation of hydrogen sulfide in deep waters. The changes in seawater salinity calculated in the model, which have occurred in the sea since the formation of the Lower Bosporus Current, change the vertical distribution of the turbulent diffusion coefficient, which determines the vertical distribution of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide. The calculated profiles of variability of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide concentrations are obtained and analyzed, reflecting the dynamics of formation processes in the geological past (over the last 10 thousand years) at different stages of the formation of the anaerobic zone of the Black Sea. Based on the results of these calculations, the main flows are analyzed.

Man and the Black Sea

The natural resources of the Black Sea are used by people in different ways. Some resources have been exploited for a long time and so thoroughly that it is urgent to slow down and help nature restore what has been lost. Others, on the contrary, are mined on a much more modest scale than is permissible. And the third is still waiting for their turn.

The resort possibilities of the Black Sea coast are still far from being fully used.

If we turn to the exploitation of biological resources, then algae are mainly used for phylloflora, from which agaroid is obtained, which is widely used in the food, medical industry and for other purposes.

The production of phylloflora today exceeds 20 thousand tons per year, which is less than what the reserves allow. The stocks of brown algae, cytophyres and sea grass - zosters are little used.

Mussels are mined 1500-2000 tons per year. This is a very minor exception. Shrimps are harvested 1000 tons per year. In the Black Sea, all countries today catch about 250,000 tons of fish. This is not so little, keep in mind that by 1940 the catch of the Black Sea countries, including dolphins, was at the level of 86,000 tons per year.

In September 1972, the Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On Measures for the Further Improvement of Nature Protection and the Rational Use of Natural Resources" also provides for the protection of the seas. In the course of the implementation of this Decree, the authorities are doing a lot of work aimed at weakening and eliminating the harmful effects on the Black Sea, at improving and improving the marine environment, and increasing the biological resources of the reservoir. The XXV Congress of the CPSU and the XXV Congress of the Communist Party of Ukraine paid much attention to environmental issues. Much is already being done to put these wise and positive decisions into practice.

In order to clean the sea from such common substances - pollutants as oil and oil products, as well as from all kinds of garbage in our country, ships - oil garbage collectors (NMS) have been designed and used in the Black Sea ports. Some of the NMS operate on the principle of adhesion - sticking and absorption of oil, others on the principle of settling. All of them quite reliably clean the surface of the sea. Ballast water treatment stations for ships have been put into operation in the ports. Therefore, our fleet practically no longer pollutes the Black Sea with oil products.

We are also doing a lot of work on cleaning and diluting industrial and municipal wastewater, as well as rain and melt water entering the sea.

Science-based Fishing Rules have been introduced and are constantly being improved. In extreme cases, prey or fishing is completely stopped, as was the case with the Black Sea dolphins. The Regulations on sports spearfishing have been approved, obliging underwater shooters to know and strictly observe the Fishing Rules established for the given area. All international efforts aimed at improving the ecological situation in the basin are extremely diverse. In the Black Sea, new fish species are actively introduced to replenish the ichthyofauna and commercial resources. Thus, work on the acclimatization of American striped bass, steelhead salmon and other species has recently begun and is being successfully continued. Some useful organisms, such as, for example, the mollusk mia, moved into the Black Sea, although with the help of man, but against his will.

Various scientific organizations of the Black Sea countries are implementing an extensive research program in order to obtain an objective picture of the current state of the Black Sea, which has been changing much faster in recent years than before, to develop effective methods for the rational use, protection and reproduction of its living wealth. A large and versatile propaganda of environmental knowledge among the population is being carried out with the help of the press, radio, television, cinema, and popular science literature.

All this human activity in relation to the sea will develop and improve. Such is the spirit of the times. However, the very versatile and increasingly intensive economic activity of people on Earth has unforeseen and undesirable biological consequences. They affect the state of the environment, including the seas and oceans, which until recently were considered immense and inexhaustible.

The semi-isolated seas, which receive a significant flow of rivers, but do not have free water exchange with other seas, fell into a particularly difficult situation. Such is the position of the Black Sea. Only the basin of the Danube, Dnieper, Dniester rivers occupy a drainage area of ​​about 1,400 thousand square kilometers, which is more than three times the area of ​​the Black Sea itself. Close dependence on rivers is one of the most important features of the Black Sea, which today plays almost the main role in the formation of new conditions for the existence of its pelagic and bottom communities. In addition, there are other, although not so specific, forms of negative human impact on the Black Sea and other seas. These are untreated effluents from settlements, industrial enterprises and agricultural lands entering the sea "by gravity", liquid and solid substances from atmospheric precipitation. And the very movement of ships on the sea, even if they do not release any pollutants overboard, is harmful, destroying the neuston. Coastal strengthening, if done without taking into account the biology of coastal aquatic communities, can also have a negative impact. The accumulation of swimmers on a limited stretch of the coast and many other forms of "man-sea" relationships, which at first glance are completely harmless to both parties, are not so harmless when approached with the high standards of modern environmental requirements. Let's consider what is the essence of voluntary and involuntary cases of human impact on the "well-being" of the Black Sea.

Let's start with the rivers, because with insufficiently active mixing of waters from top to bottom, the main source of fertilizers entering the Black Sea has always been rivers, especially the flat ones - the Danube, the Dniester, and the Dnieper, which flow into its northwestern part. It is no coincidence that this area has long been called the Black Sea granary, which stores large reserves of algae, mussels, fish and other riches. It is clear that any quantitative and qualitative changes in river flow have a significant impact on the biology of the Black Sea. Meanwhile, this stage of the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by a serious impact on river systems. On the one hand, the consumption of river water for the needs of the national economy has sharply increased. A large amount of it is spent on irrigating drylands, for supplying livestock farms, industrial enterprises, settlements, energy facilities, etc. Thus, one of the foundations on which the life of the Black Sea relied, being formed over the past millennia, is touched upon.

There is oil, mercury, and pesticides in river waters. It would seem that a positive phenomenon is the abundance of organic substances, so necessary for the life of the Black Sea. But this abundance is detrimental. What is the essence of such a paradox? The fact is that the entire "mechanism" for the use and transformation of river fertility gifts by marine animals and plants was "programmed" by nature, based on the same amounts of organic substances that are acceptable for the normal conditions of the existence of the rivers themselves. And only nitrogen-containing substances in the Danube water over the past 10 years have become several times more. This process of "re-fertilization" of water bodies (eutrophication) occurs today throughout the world and most of all affects inland water bodies (rivers, lakes, reservoirs), as well as isolated and semi-isolated seas or their individual areas.

Excess organic matter continues to decompose in the sea, consuming oxygen dissolved in the water and causing, depending on the degree of eutrophication, a deficiency of this vital gas, or even its complete disappearance.

Serious interference in the life of coastal communities of marine organisms occurs as a result of the implementation of shore protection structures.

These measures are necessary to stop landslides and curb the destructive power of waves. They include the alluvium of sandy beaches, the erection of concrete walls of traverses and breakwaters, and other works.

Purification and disposal of wastewater entering the sea not through river systems.

It happens that polluting effluents enter the sea and not at all from rivers. I had to see how, at a certain distance from the coast, pipes were put forward into the sea, through which sewage water or sewage from some enterprise is constantly or from time to time poured out. Today it is clear that these sources of pollution are unacceptable, first of all, near settlements and resort areas. Of course, there are still industries, not all of whose waste can be neutralized. In most cases, acceptable forms of coexistence between nature and industry can be found. The specialists of the Odessa branch of the IBSS have a positive experience of "reconciliation" of the chemical industry enterprises and the inhabitants of the sea. Based on a large amount of experiments, calculations and expeditionary studies, the degree of need for cleaning and dilution of the enterprise's effluents, and the conditions for their release into the sea, under which they do not have a harmful effect on the inhabitants of the water column and the bottom, are determined.

With regard to municipal wastewater - a source of bacterial, organic and other types of pollution, they must undergo complete (including biological) treatment before being released into the sea.

Real success has already been achieved in reducing marine pollution by oil products, and there is reason to hope that this type of negative impact on the life of the seas and oceans will be neutralized as much as possible.

Preservation and restoration of the ecological balance of the Black Sea

The closed nature of the Black Sea basin makes it particularly vulnerable. The development of the industry of the Black Sea states, the increase in urban settlements, the growth of resort complexes are increasingly increasing industrial and domestic pollution. The increase in the volume of oil transportation by sea, the growth of shipping, underwater oil production cannot but affect the purity of the waters, the bottom, the coastal zone of the Black Sea and coastal waters. The most dangerous is the oil pollution of the Black Sea waters.

It is known that one drop of oil can form a film on a surface with an area of ​​0.25 m 2.7 5 and 100 liters of oil poured into water create a film with an area of ​​1 km 2. Oil has a strong toxic effect. Fish living in water containing 0.6 mg of oil products per 1 liter acquire the smell of oil within one day. The maximum allowable for fish is the content of oil in water in a ratio of 1: 10,000. Under the influence of hydrocarbons contained in oil, some organs are affected. There are changes in the nervous system, liver, blood, the amount of vitamins B and C changes. Industrial and domestic pollution of the Black Sea is constantly increasing. Rivers and wastewater contribute a significant amount of various chemical and organic substances. The main cause of river pollution is industrial waste water, household waste, pesticides and mineral fertilizers used in agriculture. Of the toxic substances that enter the sea, the most toxic are compounds of certain heavy metals (lead, mercury, zinc, nickel), cyanides, and arsenic compounds.

The main problems that need to be addressed in the Black Sea are:

Prevention of marine pollution.

Conservation of biological resources.

The study and development of methods of artificial breeding of fish in the sea.

Increasing the biological productivity of the marine environment.

Regulation of fishing for traditionally exploited resources.

The study and development of fishing areas that are still underused.

Development of a coordinated, international approach to the use of biological resources.

The fight against pollution of the Black Sea waters has national, regional and international aspects. The rational approach is due to the desire to preserve and rationally use the natural conditions and resources of the shelf and overlying waters, to some extent subject to the jurisdiction of the coastal state. At the same time, the problem of protecting the marine environment from pollution is inherently international, which is determined by a single subject of labor common to all peoples. This problem is complex, complex, and includes political, economic, legal, social, technical and other issues.

The great economic importance of the seas and oceans lies in the fact that they are the cheapest and most convenient means of communication. Various trades are associated with them: catching fish, crabs, mussels, extracting edible waters, hunting sea animals (whales, walruses, seals), extracting pearls, corals, amber, etc.

At the bottom of the oceans and seas lies a large number of various minerals. Within the continental shallows of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and under the bottom. Northern. Arctic Ocean. North,. Caspian Sea,. The Azov and other seas have rich deposits of oil and combustible gases, the reserves of which are twice as large as on land. In many places the ocean floor is covered with nodules of iron, manganese, copper, nickel, cobalt and rare and trace elements.

Sea water contains many useful chemical elements in a dissolved state, and therefore, in the process of desalination, they can also be extracted and used.

The energy of the tides, and more recently ocean currents, are beginning to be used to generate electricity.

Groundwater and springs

An important part of land waters is groundwater - waters located in soils and rocks of the upper part of the earth's crust (up to a depth of 12-15 km)

Groundwater is constantly moving in the depths. Earth both vertically and horizontally. The direction, intensity of movement and depth of groundwater depends primarily on the water permeability of the mountains. RSC breeds. Rocks are permeable (capable of passing water: sand, pebbles, gravel, etc.) and water-resistant, or waterproof (igneous and metamorphic rocks without cracks, clay). On plains composed of sedimentary rocks, layers with different water permeability usually alternate; water seeps down, lingers on impermeable rocks, fills the gaps between particles of highly permeable permeable rock, forming an aquifer, or aquifer. There can sometimes be up to 10-15 such horizons. According to the conditions of occurrence, groundwater is divided into soil and between reservoir power.

Groundwater occurs above the first layer of water-resistant rocks from the surface. In the upper soil layer, which is influenced by weather factors, water moves only vertically, depending on the alternation of wet and dry periods: during the wet period, water seeps down, and in the dry period, it comes to the surface. Part of the water goes beyond the layer under the meteorological influence, and moves only outwards from to the surface of water-resistant rocks, forming a ground aquifer in water-permeable rocks.

low aquifers formed between two water-resistant layers are called interstratal, they are mainly pressure (artesian)

Groundwater moves slowly in the direction of the slope of the aquifer. Where

surface. A layer of water-resistant rocks comes out of the earth, above which groundwater collects, a source is formed - a natural outlet of groundwater to the earth's surface

Geysers are a peculiar type of springs, periodically ejecting hot water and water vapor to a height of up to 60 m.

In other areas, waters that rise from great depths or horizons adjacent to volcanic centers come to the surface in the form of warm or even hot springs. Hot underground waters (from 20 to 100 °. C) are called thermal. They are usually characterized by a high content of various salts, acids, metals, radioactive elements.

The upper groundwater horizons are predominantly fresh (up to 1 g/l) or brackish (1-10 g/l), while the deep layers are often saline (from 10 to 35 g/l or more). Waters with a salt content of more than 35 and approaches more than 50 g / l) are called brines.

Groundwater is of great economic importance, it has long been used for water supply.

The Black Sea has a fairly calm coastline, with some exceptions being only its northern territories. The Crimean peninsula cuts quite strongly into the sea in its northern part. This is the only large peninsula in the Black Sea. There are estuaries in the northern and northwestern parts. There are practically no islands in the sea. The coastline in the west and northwest is steep, low-lying, only in the west there are mountainous areas. The eastern and southern sides of the sea are surrounded by the Caucasus and Pontic mountains. Many rivers flow into the Black Sea, most of them are medium-sized, there are three large rivers: the Danube, the Dnieper, the Dniester.

History of the Black Sea

The development of the Black Sea began in ancient times. Even in ancient times, shipping was widespread on the sea, mainly for trading purposes. There is information that Novgorod and Kiev merchants sailed along the Black Sea to Constantinople. In the 17th century, Peter the Great sent an expedition on the ship "Fortress" in order to carry out research and cartographic work, as a result of the expedition, the coast from Kerch to Constantinople was obtained, and the depths were measured. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, a study of the fauna and waters of the Black Sea was carried out. At the end of the 19th century, oceanographic and depth-gauging expeditions were organized, at that time there was already a map of the Black Sea, as well as a description and its atlas.

In 1871, a biological station was established in Sevastopol, which today has become the Institute of the Southern Seas. This station conducted research and study of the Black Sea fauna. Hydrogen sulfide was discovered in the deep layers of the Black Sea at the end of the 19th century. At a later time, a chemist from Russia N.D. Zelinsky explained why this happened. After the revolution in 1919, an ichthyological station for the study of the Black Sea appeared in Kerch. Later, it turned into the Azov-Black Sea Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography, today this institution is called the Southern Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography. In Crimea, in 1929, a hydrophysical station was also opened, which today is assigned to the Sevastopol Marine Hydrophysical Ukraine. Today in Russia the main organization engaged in the research of the Black Sea is the Southern Branch of the Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which is located in Gelendzhik, in Golubaya Bukhta.

Tourism on the Black Sea

Tourism is very developed on the Black Sea coast. Almost the entire Black Sea is surrounded by tourist cities and resort towns. The Black Sea is also of military and strategic importance. The Russian fleet is based in Sevastopol and Novorossiysk, and the Turkish one in Samsun and Sinop.

Use of the Black Sea

The waters of the Black Sea today are one of the most important transport routes in the Eurasian region. A large percentage of all transported cargo falls on oil products exported from Russia. The limiting factor for increasing these volumes is the capacity of the Bosporus and Dardanelles channels. The Blue Stream gas pipeline runs along the bottom of the sea, which runs from Russia to Turkey. The total length attributable to the sea area is 396 km. In addition to oil and oil products, other products are transported along the odes of the Black Sea. Most of the goods imported into Russia and Ukraine are consumer goods and foodstuffs. The Black Sea is one of the points of the international transport corridor TRACECA (Transport Corridor Europe - Caucasus - Asia, Europe - Caucasus - Asia). Passenger transportation is also present, but in a relatively small volume.

A large river waterway also passes through the Black Sea, which connects the Black Sea with the Caspian, Baltic and White Seas. It runs through the Volga and the Volga-Don Canal. The Danube is connected to the North Sea through a series of canals.