South Federal University. Southern Federal University Group size Leadership Social skimping Social dilemmas Groupthink Conformity

Volkov Yu.G., Mostovaya I.V. Sociology: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. IN AND. Dobrenkov. – M.: Gardarika, 1998. – 244 p. ISBN 5-7762-0041-5 (in trans.)

The textbook is notable for its integral solution of educational problems, motivational construction of the text, modern “multilayered” presentation, which allows one to consistently and in depth form a thesaurus in the field of sociological knowledge. The content is characterized by the modernity of theoretical approaches and the availability of a dynamic presentation of the most complex plots. developing science, reliance on the Russian socio-cultural context in the field of facts and examples, the organic inclusion of the theoretical achievements of modern Russian sociology in the thematic presentation of the course.

In an innovative way, the methodological support of the text was carried out. The textbook contains lists of references, "portraits" of sociologists, a dictionary of special terms and mechanisms for "folded" presentation and reproduction of the text (semantic tables).

Designed for students of higher educational institutions, graduate students, teachers and those who are informally interested in the problems of the social structure.

FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
WHY SOCIOLOGY?
TOPIC 1 A VERY SHORT HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY
SCIENCE THAT IS "INDECEMBLY YOUNG"
"Vile empiricists, vulgar scholastics"
Correspondence Dispute About the "Laws of Perspective"
TWO LEVELS OF SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
BASED ON SOLIDARITY OR STRUGGLE?
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Annex 1. Materials for the Colloquium on Russian Sociology
Annex 2. Program in-depth study history of sociology
TOPIC 2 RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
CLASSICS, MODERN AND POSTMODERN IN SCIENCE
REPRESENTATIONS ABOUT "SUBJECT" AND "METHOD"
CRISES OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE STRUCTURE OF KNOWLEDGE
IS SOCIOLOGY A SCIENCE?
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Application. Discussion plan "Problems of sociological knowledge"
TOPIC 3 THE PERSON IN A PUBLIC CONTEXT
OPPORTUNITIES TO "BE HUMAN"
HABITAT - SOCIAL COMMUNITIES
MYSTERIES OF THE ORIGIN OF ASSOCIATIONS
WHAT IS "SOCIETY"?
THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF SOCIETY
MODERN SOCIETY: HUMANIZATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
FEATURES OF MODERNIZATION IN RUSSIA
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Application. Workshop on compiling a sociomatrix
TOPIC 4 PRODUCTION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
ORGANIZING "RELATIONSHIPS" AND "BEHAVIORS"
INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND MOBILITY
THE STUDY OF SOCIAL DISPOSITION
INEQUALITY AS A SOURCE OF stratification
INEQUALITY AS A STABILIZER OF STRUCTURE
FIGHT FOR "FAIR INEQUALITY"
"BOILING UNIVERSE" OF SOCIAL GROUPS
MOVEMENTS IN SOCIAL SPACE
ALGORITHMS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
WHAT GIVES KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Application. Sociodrama "Unequal Marriage"
TOPIC 5 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL GOVERNANCE
CRISIS OF SYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT INNOVATION
THE MYSTERY OF "SOCIAL MANAGEMENT"
SECURITY OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
SECURITY OF A "TRANSITIVE" SOCIETY
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Application. Conference "Management in modern world»
TOPIC 6 SOCIAL IDENTITY OF THE PERSON
CONCEPTS OF PERSONALITY IN SOCIOLOGY
MACROSOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS OF PERSONALITY
MICROSOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS OF PERSONALITY
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Application. Business game "Friday. Saturday. Sunday"
TOPIC 7 SOCIAL CULTURE
THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE IN SOCIOLOGY
CIVILIZATIONAL PROGRESS
UNIVERSALS OF CULTURE
INTERACTION OF CULTURES
Portraits of sociologists
Questions for self-study
Literature
Application. Seminar "Culture as a social phenomenon"
GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS

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M.: 2012. - 400 p.

The textbook, written in accordance with the State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education in the direction of "Sociology" (qualification - Master of Sociology), examines the role of sociology in providing knowledge of social phenomena and scientific orientation practical activities, social reality from the standpoint of sociological approaches related to the phenomena political life and management activities, based on conceptual provisions. For undergraduates (master's programs "Methodology of modern social cognition", "Sociology of management", "Sociology of politics and international relations"), graduate students, applicants (preparation for the candidate minimum exam), as well as teachers of higher educational institutions.

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CONTENT
INTRODUCTION 5
1. BASES OF THE SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA 14
1.1. Basic and derivative manifestations of sociality and their reflection in the categories of sociological science 15
1.2. Social systems and modern approaches to the analysis of the social structure of society 46
2. SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF LABOR 66
2.1. The essence of labor. Modern concept 66
2.2. Sociological aspects of the division of labor, its content and nature 84
2.3. Institutional forms of organization of collective labor and working environment 124
2.4. Formation of the subject of labor activity and its inclusion in this activity 151
2.5. The attitude of workers to work. Labor behavior 179
2.6. Social mobility in the world of work 204
3. A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL LIFE 214
3.1. Social interaction and politics 218
3.2. Sociological analysis of the links between politics and the economic and spiritual spheres of public life 248
3.3. The interaction of power and man 264
4. MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES - OBJECT OF SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY 291
4.1. Management as a type of social activity, the need to improve its scientific level in modern conditions 291
4.2. The specificity of the sociological approach to the analysis of management in social systems 316
4.3. Social management as a type of management activity in society 334
5. SELF-GOVERNMENT IN PUBLIC SYSTEMS 367
5.1. Self-government as a systemic mechanism and social institution. Essence and main features 367
5.2. Problems of formation of local self-government in modern Russia 382
LITERATURE 395

INTRODUCTION
Now it is hardly necessary to provide lengthy evidence to substantiate the fact that sociology is not an empirical applied discipline or, moreover, a set of empirical methods for studying social phenomena, as was officially considered relatively recently, but that it is primarily theoretical science. Its meaning and main significance is to give a theoretical explanation of the essence, structure, interdependence, etc. of social phenomena - from the simplest type of episodic social contacts to the most large-scale and complex, up to the structure and patterns of functioning and development of society as a whole.
True, this raises the question, which, although it has been touched upon many times in the scientific literature, still does not yet have a convincing explanation to the end: how does sociology, which claims to consider, from its own point of view, the widest range of social phenomena belonging to the most diverse spheres, relate to sociology? community life, with sciences specially designed for the study of phenomena that are different in nature, according to "belonging" to one or another of these spheres of phenomena - economic, political, etc. In other words, what is the role of sociology in the theoretical understanding of these phenomena, which are specially studied by economic science, political science, etc., which is the specific point of view in the approach to them, which is inherent in sociology. Without aiming to give an exhaustive interpretation of this rather complicated and debatable issue, which is not within the scope of the present study and requires independent and very thorough consideration, we will state only some of the initial provisions on which the approach of this study is based on the range of problems selected as his subject.
The first thing we will proceed from is a widespread in domestic social science, although not universally recognized, and therefore a debatable idea that in public life it is possible to single out four main social ones, using a concept that is little used in our country, but common in world sociology. , - spheres: economic, social, political and spiritual life. Consequently, social phenomena, relations, etc. are not simply an expression of some special "aspects", characteristics of economic, political, spiritual phenomena, as some scientists believe, but form in their systemic unity a special sphere of social life - a social, located "in the same row" with the other three social spheres named. To this, however, one should add a provision, unfortunately not taken into account by the authors, even proceeding from the indicated and fully shared by us idea, that the named societal spheres should not be confused with the system of also various areas of human activity: production, consumer, household, leisure, etc. In some cases, the same concept, in particular the term "political", denotes both a certain area of the life of society, and one of social spheres. But even here one can reveal the discrepancy between the areas of reality designated by this one word.

The textbook is written taking into account the state educational standard of the second generation, based on Russian realities and the best foreign and domestic textbooks of sociology, is distinguished by encyclopedic and “layered” presentation, an integral solution of educational problems and aims to give the reader a solid knowledge of sociology. The history of social ideas, basic concepts, directions and paradigms of sociology, as well as its methods are considered. Particular attention is paid to the issues of modern sociology.
Designed for students of higher educational institutions. It is of interest to graduate students and university professors, as well as to a wide range of readers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword

§ 1.1. Sociology as a science
Sociology and other sciences

§ 1.2. Development of sociology

Background and socio-philosophical premises of sociology
The formation of sociology as a science
Classical sociological theories
Russian sociological thought
Contemporary sociological theories

§ 1.3. Levels of sociological analysis and sociological paradigms

Levels of analysis
Sociological paradigms

§ 1.4. Theoretical approaches in sociology

Functionalism
Conflict theory
Symbolic interactionism

§ 1.5. Sociological research

Basic concepts
Stages of sociological research
Research methods
Research ethics
Sociological perspective
sociological imagination
Chapter 2. CULTURE
§ 2.1. Definitions of culture

§ 2.2. Culture Components

Norms
Values
Symbols and language

§ 2.3. Culture and myth

Main theories
Ideology

§ 2.4. Unity and Diversity of Cultures

Cultural universals
cultural integration
ethnocentrism
Cultural relativism
Subcultures and countercultures
cultural evolution
Chapter 3. SOCIALIZATION
§ 3.1. Fundamentals of socialization
The value of socialization
Nature and nurture
social communication
Definition of the situation

§ 3.2. Personality

Personality characteristics
Self
The theory of "mirror self"
The notion of a “generalized other”
The “impression management” process

§ 3.3. Socialization during the life cycle

Life cycle in different cultures
Childhood
Adolescence
Early maturity or youth
middle age or maturity
Old age or old age
Death

§ 3.4. Resocialization

Chapter 4. SOCIAL GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS
§ 4.1. social structure
Basic concepts
Social statuses
Social roles
Groups
Institutes
Society

§ 4.2. Classification of social groups

Social connections
Primary and secondary groups
Internal and external groups
Reference groups

§ 4.3. group dynamics

Group size
Leadership
Social skimping
Social dilemmas
groupthink
conformism

§ 4.4. Social organizations

Characteristics of the organization
Formal organizations
Types of formal organizations
Bureaucracy
Weber's concept of bureaucracy
Drawbacks of Bureaucracy
Management in organizations
Informal organizations
Chapter 5. DEVIATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL
§ 5.1. Nature of deviation
Social characteristics of deviation
social control
Social effects of deviation

§ 5.2. Sociological theories of deviation

Study of deviant behavior
Theory of anomie
Cultural transfer theory
Conflict theory
Stigma theory

§ 5.3. Crime and the justice system

Law enforcement system
A crime
Drugs and crime
Imprisonment
totalitarian institutions
Crime in Russia
Chapter 6. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
§ 6.1. Models of social stratification
Social differentiation
Open and closed stratification systems
Stratification measurements

§ 6.2. Systems of social stratification

Slavery
castes
Clans
Classes
Gender inequality and social stratification

§ 6.3. Theories of social inequality

Functionalist theory of stratification
Conflictological theory of stratification

§ 6.4. The class system of modern societies

social classes
Stratification of modern Russian society
Identification of social classes
Significance of social classes
Middle class
Poverty in Russia
Deprivation

§ 6.5. social mobility

Forms of social mobility
Social mobility in industrial societies
Status Achievement Processes
Chapter 7. RACIAL, ETHNIC AND GENDER INEQUALITY
§ 7.1. Racial and ethnic stratification
Races, ethnic groups and minorities
Prejudice and discrimination
Dominant group politics
Functionalist and conflictological theories
National-ethnic composition of Russia

§ 7.2. Tender stratification

Female minority
Gender roles and culture
Gender self-identification
Gender roles in Russia and Western countries
Chapter 8. FAMILY
§ 8.1. Family structure
The role of the family
Family types
Forms of marriage
Functionalist approach to the family problem
Conflictological approach to the problem of the family

§ 8.2. Marriage and family in Russia and the USA

Choosing a partner for marriage
Family children
parental status
Working mothers
Violence, child abuse and incest in the family
Dynamics of marriages and divorces in Russia
Families with stepfather or mother
Caring for the Elderly

§ 8.3. Alternative lifestyles

Causes of Diversity in Lifestyles
single life
Unregistered couples
Families with single parents
Chapter 9. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND HEALTH
§ 9.1. Religion
sacred and profane
Types religious beliefs and practitioner
Social forms of organization of religion
Functions of Religion
Dysfunctions of religion
Conflictology and functionalism about religion
Confirmation of Tradition: Islamic Revolution in Iran
Changes in the Secular World: The Protestant Ethic
Revival of religion in Russia
Problems of relations between the state and the church in Russia

§ 9.2. Education

Training and education
Functionalist approach to education
Conflictology about education
Education in modern Russia

§ 9.3. healthcare

Functionalist approach to healthcare
Conflict approach to healthcare
Health care system
Russian population health
CHAPTER 10. THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
§ 10.1. Ecological environment
Ecosystem
Effects of overpopulation

§ 10.2. Population

World population growth
Factors affecting population change
Demographic processes in Russia

Population structure
Malthus and Marx
Demographic transition theory
Demographic policy
Demographic forecast of the world population

§ 10.3. urban environment

The origin and evolution of cities
Urban Growth Models
Russian cities
Chapter 11. SOCIAL CHANGES
§ 11.1. Sources of social change
Social drivers of change
Approaches to the study of social change. Concepts of social progress
Modernization
Modernization and industrialization
Transformation of societies
Social changes in Russia
Social Change in Third World Countries
World system and processes of globalization

§ 11.2. collective behavior

Variety of models of collective behavior
Prerequisites for Collective Behavior
Crowd Behavior Explanations

§ 11.3. social movements

Types of social movements
social revolution
Terrorism
Causes of social movements
Social problems
Conclusion. A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE
Changes in the world
Multipolar world
Russia's place in the world community
Glossary of technical terms
Literature
FOREWORD
There are few academic disciplines that concern us as intimately as sociology. As a science that studies social organizations and interactions, sociology helps to understand the events taking place around us and the social forces that affect us, focusing on those aspects of our social environment that we often ignore, lose sight of or take for granted. Sociology equips us with a special form of awareness of reality.
The proposed textbook consistently sets out the principles, laws and patterns of the emergence and functioning of human societies, organized into a system of science, which its founder O. Comte called sociology.
The sociology curriculum aims to provide students with a fairly complete compendium of knowledge about the specifics of sociology and its laws, isolating it from the vast mass of information provided by scientific and educational literature.
The layout of the material and the data of sociological research, examples from various areas of social life will allow the reader who does not have special training to get acquainted with a wide range of sociological problems with the least expenditure of time.
This textbook focuses on principles rather than details, the main points rather than current issues, and the description of specially selected examples, not just a listing of facts.
The structure of the textbook maintains integrity training course sociology, which allows, according to the authors, to use it optimally, in particular, in preparing for the exam - for systematization and rapid assimilation of the material.
Many key topics - the theory and practice of sociological research, culture, socialization, groups and organizations, deviation and social control, social stratification, race, gender, family, religion, society and social change - are covered here more fully than in most sociology textbooks. .
At the end of the textbook is a list of key terms and definitions. The most important sociological terms are highlighted in type, their definitions are given in the textbook as these terms appear in the text.
Sociological culture is becoming an integral element of Russian reality. In its formation and development, Russian sociology, relying, of course, on its own traditions and achievements, uses the experience of Western sociology. This book is based on the materials of the best foreign and domestic sociology textbooks - E. Asp, E. Giddens, A. Johnson, J. W. Vander Zanden, R. Lamm and R. Schaefer, A. Mendra, N. Smelser, J. Ritzer , J. M. Hinslin, as well as many scientific articles.
Interest in sociology is natural for people in general, since man, being a social being, is himself the object of its study. We believe that every educated person should have an understanding of sociology, which is why we wrote this book.
The authors
Back Contents
Forward

Chapter 1. SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
The result of the interaction of people in society is the interweaving of meanings, expectations, actions, and all this is the subject of study of sociology. Hence, we can define sociology as the scientific study of social interaction and organization.
Sociology is a branch of the science of human behavior that aims to reveal the cause-and-effect relationships that arise between individuals and groups in the process of social relations. It studies traditions, structures and institutions, the influence of groups and organizations on the behavior and character of people. Sociology investigates the basic characteristics of human society on a local and global scale, deals with the study of social interaction and group behavior through research based on precise and specialized collection and analysis of facts.
Sociology, based on observations and measurements, makes it possible to use systematized information to solve complex problems related to social policy and choice; it is an effective tool for a person to know his position in society, in the family, and in other social groups.
§ 1.1. SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Sociology and other sciences
Natural Sciences. At all times, man has been obsessed with the desire to uncover the mysteries surrounding him and understand the world.
In the process of cognition, people developed methods for studying the social and natural world, using them to obtain, substantiate and systematize knowledge about the world. Sociology - Scientific research society and human behavior - is one of the sciences developed by modern civilization. In order to better understand the place of sociology among these sciences, it is necessary first to consider the natural and social sciences separately.
Natural sciences are theoretical and academic disciplines that aim to understand, explain and predict events and processes in the natural environment. The natural sciences are subdivided into specialized fields of study according to their subject matter, such as biology, geology, chemistry and physics. They are further subdivided into even more specialized sections with narrower content. Biology includes botany and zoology, geology - mineralogy and geomorphology, chemistry studies organic and inorganic substances, physics distinguishes biophysics and quantum mechanics. In each field of research, a certain “piece” of nature is considered.
Social Sciences. People did not limit themselves to the study of nature. Trying to get a more complete picture of life, they also created areas of science, the subject of which is the social world. These social sciences study human relations. If the natural sciences strive to objectively understand the natural world, then the social sciences aim to objectively understand the social world. The natural world includes ordered (regular) connections that are not obvious, but should be detected in purposeful observations, the ordered relationships of people in the social world are also not striking, and they have to be identified with the help of purposeful and regular observations.
The social sciences include anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, history, and sociology. In turn, anthropology is divided into cultural and physical anthropology; economics to macro- and microeconomics; in political science there are theoretical and applied sections; psychology can be clinical or experimental; history - the world and the history of individual countries; the object of study of sociology are the quantitative and qualitative aspects of social life. Since we are interested in sociology, let's compare it with other social sciences.
Political science. Political scientists deal with issues of politics and government. They study how people run their society various forms boards, their structure and relation to other public institutions. Of particular interest to political scientists are the ways in which people achieve power in society, the way in which they retain positions of power, the relationship of those in power with those under the rule, political organizations, institutions, movements and the behavior of voters.

Economy. Economics also concentrates on the study of one social institution. Economists are engaged in the study of the problems of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services in a particular society.
Anthropology. Anthropology, a related discipline of sociology, examines culture as a way of life of society as a whole. It mainly focuses on the study of the culture of pre-literate, or tribal, societies. The concept of culture as a subject of anthropology includes: group artifacts, such as tools, art, and weapons; group structure, i.e. hierarchy and other patterns that define relationships in society; the ideas and values of the group, the impact of beliefs on people's lives; forms of communication in the group, especially language.
Psychology. Psychologists are engaged in the study of mental processes associated with intelligence, emotions, perception and memory. The branch of psychology social Psychology, studies the social conditioning of the behavior of individuals and groups, i.e. types of behavior in connection with social norms, upbringing, age, life experience, origin, as well as the impact of needs, self-esteem on interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup relations.
Story. Historical science studies the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity, i.e. deals with past behavior and unique events. It consists of world (universal) history and the history of individual countries and peoples. The branches of historical science are: historical geography, historiography, economic history, as well as archeology, paleography, genealogy, diplomacy, chronology, etc.
Sociology. Sociology has much in common with other social sciences. She is united with political science by the fact that she studies, among other things, the problems of political relations and government controlled. It borders on economic science, affecting the sphere of social circulation of goods and services, but in the aspect of studying the social consequences of production, distribution and exchange. Like anthropology, sociology makes its subject matter culture, beliefs, traditions, but considers them from a special sociological angle. It has in common with psychology that it explores the individual and her life in a group of her own kind. Finally, unlike historical science, which studies only what has happened and entered history, sociology focuses on the present, includes social planning and forecasting.
What distinguishes sociology from other social sciences?
Definitions of the subject of sociology
Some sociologists consider society as a structured system, others as a set of interacting individuals, some study material facts, others study symbols. The fabric of social relations is so complex that it is practically impossible to express such a wide-ranging subject of sociology in one definition. Therefore, here are some of the most authoritative judgments: (Volkov Yu.G., Mostovaya I.V. Sociology. M., 1999. S. 67-69.)
“... One can call an institution all beliefs, all behaviors established by a group. Sociology can then be defined as the science of institutions, their genesis and functioning” (Durkheim E. Sociology. Its subject, method, purpose. M., 1995. S. 20.) (E. Durkheim).
Sociology, “being in the broadest sense of the word an extensive science of society ... can be defined as the science of social elements and first principles” (Giddings F.G. Foundations of Sociology. M., 1898. P. 36.) (F.G. . Giddings).
The subject of sociology “contains many movements ... the relationship of the individual to society, the causes and forms of the formation of groups, the opposites of classes and transitions from one to another, the development of relations between dominant and subordinate, and an infinite number of other issues” (Simmel G. Social differentiation. M., 1909. S. 11.) (G. Simmel).
“Sociology is a science that studies the forms of government, strengthening and weakening of solidarity between conscious organic individuals” (Lavrov P.L. Philosophy and sociology / / Selected work. In 2 vol. M., 1965. T. 2. S. 639. ) (P.L. Lavrov).
“Sociology itself is rightly and very accurately defined as the science of culture, or rather, of the factors of culture in the broad sense of the word” (De Roberti E.V. Sociology and Psychology / / New ideas in sociology. St. Petersburg, 1914. Sat. No. 2. S. 8.) (E.V. De Roberti).
“Sociology should be a doctrine of society, just as there is a general doctrine of life” (Kareev N.I. Introduction to the study of sociology. St. Petersburg, 1897. P. 3.) (N.I. Kareev).
Sociology is “the science of the order and progress of human societies” (Kovalevsky M.M. Sociology. St. Petersburg, 1910. P. 30.) (M.M. Kovalevsky).
“Sociology studies the phenomena of interaction of people with each other, on the one hand, and the phenomena arising from this process of interaction, on the other” (Sorokin P.A. System of sociology. M., 1993. T. 1. P. 57.) (P.A. Sorokin).
In addition to this, we will give some more definitions of the subject of sociology as a science that studies society and social behavior.
According to the definition of R. Park and E. Burgess, sociology can be considered a science that studies collective behavior. A. Inkeles, in turn, notes that sociology studies the systems of social actions and their relationships, and its objects are societies, institutions and social relations.
Sociology tries to comprehend human behavior, determined primarily by culture, way of life, social organization and other similar factors. In this case, of course, various causal relationships, relationships and dependencies fall into the field of view of the researcher, i.e. social behavior is studied in dynamics.
J. Robertson calls sociology a science that studies human society and social behavior. According to D. Douglas, sociology is a science that studies a person and communities and seeks to define them. character traits especially on the example of modern civilizations.
Although sociology also pays attention to the individual, however, the central objects of its study are social groups and groupings, as well as social processes. Sociology describes and examines patterns of social values, social change, deviant behavior, religious behavior, and family life, among other things. Sociology studies the differences that exist between social classes, political and professional groups and other social associations. At the same time, she is not interested in interpersonal differences proper, although sometimes she must consider them.
J. Nobbs, B. Hine and M. Flemming put forward a definition that characterizes sociology as a scientific and systematic study of the behavior of people living in groups (meaning organized communities). The smallest group is usually the family, and the largest is the nation or state. There are such groups as the school collective, the work collective, the neighborhood, the village or the city.
“Sociology,” writes V.A. Yadov, is the science of the formation, development and functioning of social communities and forms of their self-organization: social systems, social structures and institutions. This is the science of social changes caused by the activity of a social subject - communities; the science of social relations as mechanisms of interconnection and interaction between diverse social communities, between the individual and communities; the science of the laws of social action and mass behavior”.
G.V. Osipov defines sociology as a science that studies the social structure of society, the development of systems and organizations, and interactions within society. Under the social structure, Osipov means inter- and intra-class relations and a system social institutions or institutions regulating these relations.
According to N. Smelser, “sociology, simply put, is one of the ways of studying people ... In short, sociology can be defined as the scientific study of society and social relations.” E. Giddens understands sociology as "the science of the social life of a person, groups and societies."
All the above definitions emphasize social structure, on the one hand, and social behavior (action), on the other, as subjects of sociological research. The demographic, economic and class structure of society, territorial factors, prevailing ethical, moral and spiritual values (which in general terms constitute the social structure of society) determine social behavior. Sociology seeks to understand and explain human behavior in terms of these structural and situational factors.
Some structural factors, such as the demographic and economic structure of society, are very specific. Others are abstract and seemingly not so obvious. These include, in particular, social relations, which, like the social structure, regulate the interaction of individuals.
The definition of the subject of sociology as a science that studies social behavior, or action, and social structures, is graphically represented in fig. 1.1.