Alexander the Great and Darius at the Battle of Issus. House of the Faun. Pompeii, c. 100 BC e.
Mosaic. 313; 582 cm, National Archaeological Museum, Naples

Many of the most interesting Pompeii mosaics are now kept in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. But even in Pompeii itself you can see extraordinary paintings made of colored stone. In many compositions, the careful selection of colors and the size of the mosaic elements are striking - just a few millimeters.

The most famous Pompeii mosaic is the Battle of Issus from the House of the Faun. The mosaic was made famous not only by the image of Alexander the Great, but also by the artistic depth of the images, the dynamics of the whole picture, the emotionality and drama carried through the millennia.

The plot of the mosaic is one of the key moments in the history of ancient civilization. The battle of the army of Alexander the Great with the army of the Persian king Darius opened the way for the great commander to the east, to India. And dealt a stunning blow to the Persian Empire. The authors of the mosaic managed to convey not only the experiences of the main characters, but also the general intensity of passions.

It is assumed that the mosaic was made in the 1st century AD after a painting original by the Greek artist Philoxenus from Eritrea. Philoxenus was a contemporary of Alexander, so it is very likely that the sharp, intense, slightly angular features of Alexander's face are much closer to the original than the idealized portraits of later times. The face of Darius, although it reflects a complex range of feelings, most likely also has a portrait resemblance to the king of the Persians.

Alexander on the mosaic.

The picture as a whole is striking in its versatility and integrity. The complexity of the composition is formed by numerous figures of warriors, horsemen, who are in motion. At the same time, faces and details are written out with accuracy and realism.

In the mosaic of the Battle of Issus, the color scheme is limited - black, white and yellow-red colors are used. This limitation is by no means due to the lack of materials of a different color, but is an artistic concept, probably subordinated to some general interior interests. It is difficult to judge, perhaps the pictorial original was originally made in such colors.

Currently, the original mosaic is in the Archaeological Museum of Naples, but it originally decorated the floor in the House of the Faun in Pompeii (now there is an exact copy of the mosaic, made by craftsmen from Ravenna). The size of the composition is 5.84 by 3.17 meters (the area is over 15 square meters), the number of mosaic elements is more than one and a half million
Reconstruction of the painting.

pompeian cat
The second replicated mosaic from Pompeii is an image of a leopard (some, however, believe that this is a cat). The characteristic spotted coloring is conveyed quite accurately, leaving no doubt about the rapacity of the beast and pronounced clawed paws. But the grin on the face can hardly be considered aggressive - the cat is more likely to play, preparing to jump for a toy, than seriously going to attack.

One of the typical techniques of Roman mosaics is clearly visible on this mosaic - the silhouette of the picture is emphasized not only by colored cubes, but also by background white elements laid out along the line. The volume of the animal's body itself is well conveyed in the mosaic, and the shadows from the paws are designed to emphasize the realism of the image.
Good pussy, good...

Cave Canem - Be afraid of the dog

Another "hit" of the Pompeii mosaics is the guard dog. In Pompeii, the image of a dog at the entrance to the house served as a kind of security talisman and a warning to guests. The inscription Cave Canem (Fear the dog) on ​​one of them has become a common noun for such images. Most watchdogs are made in black and white - the dog guarding the house is usually lined with small black cubes on a light background.

The sizes and plots of the mosaics with dogs are individual - there are large and very realistic dogs, as well as smaller ones and more marked than drawn in detail. Ferocious and wary dogs are more characteristic, but on some the guards peacefully curl up and sleep.

On the example of the above mosaics, differences in the style and shape of the images are noticeable. There are several periods in the art of Pompeii, because the city developed and grew over several centuries. Without going into subtleties of art history, we will simply draw the attention of visitors to a noticeable difference in the presentation of images and the form of execution of mosaics.

In ancient mythology, there is one very pronounced image of a guard dog - this is a Cerberus guarding the entrance to another world. Who knows, maybe, depicting a dog at the entrance, the inhabitants of Pompeii hoped that she would protect them from the troubles and hardships of the outside world and keep peace and tranquility in the house? It is a pity that the beautiful mosaics ultimately did not fulfill this purpose.

PLATO'S ACADEMY.

A mosaic in a villa in Pompeii is believed to depict a group of philosophers from the classical period. Second from the left - Lysias, third from the left - Plato. The picture itself is concise and almost schematic in depicting details. The antique temple, tree, capitals of the column are marked, but not traced, although the folds on the clothes are accurate and realistic. The composition and manner of execution suggest that the mosaic was made after a painting of the Greek school.

But by the time the mosaic was made, a different style reigned in Pompeii - a chic frame with a magnificent decorative interlacing of fruits, ribbons, leaves and eight comic masks was added to the plot image of the mosaic master. Each mask is original, they are not repeated, and their funny grotesque grimaces seem to laugh at the pathos of the central plot.

Some historians believe that the mosaic depicts not Plato at all and not his Academy at all, but a meeting of scientists from the Alexandria Museum (which was not at all a museum in our understanding, but something like an academy of sciences and a university in one bottle). In the grand scheme of things, does it really matter? People are sitting, talking about important things, and masks are laughing around - how many times will world art repeat such a collision ...

The material for the mosaic was marble cubes with the addition of smalt. Now the mosaic is in Naples, in the National Archaeological Museum.

PEOPLE AND FATE.

In Pompeian painting and mosaics, mythological and genre scenes are often found. Sometimes it is simply impossible to separate where the legend is depicted and where real life is depicted. For us, the whole world of Ancient Rome is a big legend, with its established images, clichés, and delusions.

Our universally educated world is sometimes too obsessed with predestination. But the Pompeians, judging by this picture, attached great importance to Fortune, Chance, Luck. (Something like - do not renounce the bag). Wheel, skull, scales, measure - the symbolism is understandable even after a couple of millennia. Two dresses, two worlds - and sometimes it's so easy to be on the other side.

The art of mosaic was so widespread that among the plots of mosaic paintings and panels there are a wide variety of animals, birds, fish - in their native habitat, in interaction or simply in the form of a still life (and before the famous hunting "collapses" of Snyders, there are still centuries and centuries .. .).

Mosaic depicting the inhabitants of the deep sea is also known under the names "Fish", "Seabed" and - even - "Sea reptiles". On a black background, an encyclopedia of fish and animals that lived in the depths of the sea and is well known to the authors of the mosaic is presented, since most of the creatures (more than twenty different inhabitants of the sea) are not only recognizable, but also conveyed with amazing accuracy. With the help of color nuances, the artist reproduced the characteristic coloration of fish, including even small details - fins, gill lines, octopus suckers, etc.

The compositional center of the picture is an octopus wrapped around a lobster with tentacles. The close-set and accentuated eyes of the octopus seem to be directed directly at the viewer of the picture. The octopus seems to be conducting a dialogue with the viewer through the glass of a modern aquarium, while the rest of the fish are busy with their own business. However, there is no doubt that all the represented species of fish, mollusks, crustaceans made up a significant part of the diet of the Pompeians, so the mosaic is a kind of illustration of the culinary habits of two thousand years ago.

It would be unfair not to pay attention to the surviving examples of the interior decoration of the courtyards and villas of Pompeii. The inhabitants of the ancient city knew a lot about not only the fine arts, but also knew how to equip their homes with elegance and luxury.

Probably, most of the floors in the houses of the aristocracy and wealthy families were decorated with geometric and floral ornaments, lined with black and white elements. But huge colored floor compositions are not uncommon (like the already mentioned Battle of Issus).

The history of Roman mosaics is far from exhausted by the artistic paintings found in Pompeii. However, it was the city covered with ashes that gave an idea of ​​how extensively mosaics were used in the art of exterior and interior decoration of public buildings and residential buildings in the ancient Roman world. After dying, Pompeii became a monument to itself and to an ancient civilization that paid so much attention to the beauty and aesthetics of its daily life.

To see the gallery of Pompeian mosaics, follow the link. Many of the pictures I took in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. http://maxpark.com/community/6782/content/2229683

Other stories about POMPEI.

The death of the city of Pompeii.

Discovery and preservation

The mosaic was discovered on October 24 during excavations of ancient Pompeii in Italy on the floor of one of the rooms of the House of the Faun and transferred to the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, where it is kept to this day. First, the mosaic was laid out on the floor, as in its original form; near the mosaic was placed on the wall for a better view. A copy of the mosaic was laid out on the floor of the Faun's house. The dimensions of the grandiose painting are 313x582 cm², but some of the fragments have not been preserved.

Mosaic fragment with King Darius

The royal armor of Alexander depicted on the mosaic was reconstructed in Oliver Stone's film "Alexander". The armor is decorated on the chest with a gorgonion, an image of the head of the Gorgon Medusa. Part of the mosaic depicting Alexander's bodyguards from the hetairoi has not survived, and only the Boeotian helmet of the hetaira with a gilded wreath conveys the appearance of the famous ancient horsemen. A fragment depicting the standard of the Persian troops was also damaged.

Iconography

prototype

Alexander slays the Persians on the wall of the Sidon sarcophagus.

In terms of iconography, the relief on the royal Sidon sarcophagus (4th century BC), which also depicts the battle of Alexander with the Persians, has a similarity with the mosaic; probably, both monuments go back to a common source. The Pompeian work is considered to be a copy of the masters of the Alexandrian school of mosaic from a picturesque ancient Greek canvas, executed in a different technique. The Greek original is apparently mentioned by the ancient Roman writer Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 35.110) as a work commissioned by the Macedonian king Cassander, made by Philoxenus of Eretria, a Greek artist of the late 4th century. BC e. The time reference of the creation of the picture, made from literary data, is confirmed by the manner of execution with a limited set of colors used and the way of drawing, characteristic of the early Hellenistic period.

Additional illustrations

Mosaic of Alexander the Great or "Battle of Issus".

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Mosaic of Alexander" is in other dictionaries:

- (2nd century BC), floor mosaic (see MOSAIC) in the House of the Faun in Pompeii depicting the battle of Alexander the Great (see ALEXANDER the Great) and Darius III at Issus. Possibly from Alexandria. Repetition of the famous painting by the Greek artist ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Palestine mosaic, 1st c. BC e. 585 x 431 cm Nile Mosaic 585 x 431 cm antique mosaic depicting the course of the Nile and scenes from Ptolemaic Egyptian life. The date the mosaic was created is based on ... Wikipedia

- (2nd century BC) floor mosaic in the House of the Faun in Pompeii depicting the battle of Alexander the Great and Darius III at Issus. Possibly from Alexandria. Repetition of the famous painting by the Greek artist Philoxenus (late 4th century BC). At present… … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

mosaic- An image composed of many elements that are close to each other in size Source: Pluzhnikov, 1995 Mosaic (French mosaïque, Italian mosaico, from Latin musivum, literally dedicated to the muses), an image or pattern made from homogeneous ... ... Dictionary of temple architecture

- (from Greek μουσεϊον, abode, temple of the Muses; Latin opus musivum, Italian musaico, French mosaïque, old Russian musia) in the broad sense of the word, a drawing or picture composed of multi-colored pieces of any solid body, ... ...

- (from Greek μουσεϊον, abode, temple of the Muses; Latin opus musivum, Italian musaico, French mosa ï que, old Russian musia) in the broad sense of the word, a drawing or picture composed of multi-colored pieces of any solid body, ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Mosaic- an image of small pebbles (pebbles) or cubes (tesserae), plain or colored, laid on a solution; decorated floors, sometimes walls and vaults of residential, public, religious buildings. M. from ceramics is known in the countries of Dr. East in the IV II millennium ... ...

Alexandra mosaic- a painting depicting the battle of Alexander the Great and Darius III at Issus. It covered the floor of the exedra of the House of the Faun in Pompeii (5 x 2.7 m; 2nd century BC). Possibility, was brought from Alexandria and yavl. a copy from a painting by other gr. the artist Philoxenus (to the 4th century ... Antique world. Dictionary reference.

ALEXANDRA QUEEN- [August] († 303), mts. (Commemorated April 23 or 21; Cop. April 10). Suffered in Nicomedia along with the martyr. George the Victorious by the verdict of the imp. Diocletian. A. Ts. believed in Christ, becoming a witness of the miraculous healing by the angel of the martyr. George from ... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia

Musīvum, from small pebbles or glass pins, geometric figures (tesselatum), or whole pictures (actually musivum), were composed, for example, a beautiful picture in Pompeii depicting the battle of Alexander, in which on one ... ... Real Dictionary of Classical Antiquities

Books

• Greek mosaic. Story. People. Travels, Natalia Nissen. Historian and journalist Natalia Nissen, who has lived in Greece for many years and is currently working in this country, talks about her in the pages of her book. The author uses a special form ...

The mosaic is made up of about one and a half million pieces, assembled into a picture using a technique known as "opus vermiculatum", that is, the pieces were assembled one by one along winding lines.

Encyclopedic YouTube

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✪ Hellenistic: Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii

✪ Alexander the Great. Series 2

✪ Sensei 4. Original Shambhala. Anastasia Novykh. Audiobook. The Holy Grail, Christianity and the Templars.

Subtitles

Baseball and football commentators sometimes point out a turning point in a game. But now we have before us an image not of a sports, but of a real battle. One of the most important in history. It was at this decisive moment that the great ruler of Persia took to flight under the onslaught of the great Greek commander Alexander. Darius, king of the Persians, had just given the order to the soldiers to retreat. Here you can feel the extreme tension and multidirectional impulses. On the one hand, the movement goes from right to left: the spears of the Persian soldiers are still directed at the Greeks. And at the same time, the largest object on the canvas - the chariot - turns back. And it is this tension, a sharp turn, that gives the mosaic an amazing dynamism. A wounded man lies on the ground, he dies. One of my favorite pieces of the mosaic is the reflection of one of the Persians in his own shield. He sees himself there, defeated in battle, possibly dying. And my favorite detail is, perhaps, one of the horses harnessed to Darius' chariot. Look, she almost got off the ground with all her hooves! She is pulled to the left, and she turns her head to the right. In this mosaic there is a feeling of some violence. The face of Alexander, who rushes to Darius, is filled with determination. And Darius looks scared. He stretches his hand to Alexander, as if begging to spare the Persian soldiers. Surprise, anxiety, and a plea for compassion are read in his eyes. Yes, I think it is. Alexander was famous for his generosity, at least towards the family of Darius. He was a great Greek commander, the founder of a vast empire. Yes, he not only unified Greece, but also moved south into Egypt, moved east into Persia, and took possession of the entire Indus Valley. In a word, he subordinated to Greece a huge part of the world known at that time. Please note: all these details are transferred using pebbles and pieces of glass. So, we have a mosaic, which we believe is a copy of a Greek painting. We hope that this is a copy of a Greek work, because ancient Greek paintings have practically not survived to us, and according to Pliny, Greek painting was beautiful. Indeed, speaking of Greek art, we first of all remember sculptures, architecture, or, perhaps, painting on vases. Although ancient written sources claimed that the Greeks were best at wall painting. But we don't have samples. And this mosaic can give an idea about it. It is interesting that the upper part of the mosaic is almost empty, and the main content is concentrated at the bottom. Especially when you consider that the original canvas, apparently, was on the wall, and it had to be viewed vertically. At least we assume so. Historians associate this mosaic with the work of the artist Philoxenus, which was described by Pliny. According to him, Philoxenus depicted the battle between Alexander and Darius. The problem is that there were probably many paintings on this subject. It is known that among the ancient Greek artists who chose this plot, there was even one woman. It was an incredibly significant clash between two commanders, between two civilizations. I'm sure there were many more pictures. But that's all we have. All that was found, and then only because after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e. the whole city of Pompeii was buried under a layer of ash... ...and with it the mosaic. She was found on the floor between two peristyles - open courtyards surrounded by columns - in one of the largest and most luxurious mansions in Pompeii. According to a bronze statuette found there, it is often called the house of the Faun. The mosaic itself is simply amazing quality, so it is not surprising that it was found in such a luxurious house. As you know, the mosaic consists of one and a half million pieces of glass and stone. The quality lies not only in the subtlety of the material, but also in the incredible realism of the image, which the ancient Greek masters were famous for. Even with the help of such tiny pebbles, they managed to depict the play of light and shadow, to create a sense of volume. Look at the horses or the faces of the warriors. What a turn of the head, anatomical accuracy. Just look at the angle in which the horses are depicted. Here, the knowledge of anatomy and body movements, which the ancient Greeks were famous for, is clearly manifested. And, of course, this mosaic testifies to the respect of the Romans for the achievements of ancient Greek art. Sometimes it seems that all the inhabitants of Pompeii wanted to imitate the Greeks, to have copies of ancient Greek sculptures or paintings. In Pompeii, as in Rome, everyone was just crazy about ancient Greek culture.

Discovery and preservation

The mosaic was discovered on October 24, 1831 during excavations of ancient Pompeii in Italy on the floor of one of the premises of the house of the Faun and was transferred in 1843 to the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, where it is kept to the present. First, the mosaic was laid out on the floor, as in its original form; near the mosaic was placed on the wall for a better view. A copy of the mosaic was laid out on the floor of the Faun's house. The dimensions of the grandiose painting are 313 × 582 cm, but some of the fragments have not been preserved.

The royal armor of Alexander depicted on the mosaic was reconstructed in Oliver Stone's film "Alexander". The armor is decorated on the chest with a gorgonion, an image of the head of a gorgon Medusa. Part of the mosaic depicting Alexander's bodyguards from the hetairoi has not been preserved, and only the Boeotian helmet of the hetaira with a gilded wreath conveys the appearance of the famous ancient horsemen. A fragment depicting the standard of the Persian troops was also damaged.

Iconography

The mosaic depicts the battle between Alexander the Macedonian and the Persian king Darius III. In compositional terms, Darius dominates in the center of the picture. His gaze, wide with horror, is directed to the left, where Alexander's spear pierces one of the bodyguards of the Persian king. With his right hand, the dying man is still trying to grasp the deadly weapon, as if he wants to take it out of his body, but his legs are already giving way, and he sinks onto his bleeding black horse. Darius himself, with a bewildered face, unarmed, is trying to turn his chariot around. His outstretched sympathetic but vain right hand and desperate look are addressed to the mortally wounded warrior who threw himself between him and the attacking Alexander. However, both the look and the gesture of Darius equally apply to the approaching Alexander. The Persian king himself has already ceased to fight and therefore becomes a passive victim in an atmosphere of all-encompassing horror.

The Macedonian king, on the contrary, most actively predetermines events on the battlefield. Alexander without a helmet, in luxurious linen armor, riding his Bucephalus, he pierces the body of the enemy with a spear, without even glancing at his victim. His wide eye is focused on Daria; even the Gorgon's gaze on his gorgoneion is directed towards the frightened enemy, as if trying to further strengthen this powerful hypnotic effect.

The portrait of Alexander corresponds to the so-called Lysippus type, to which, for example, the statue of the head of Alexander from the Louvre is also attributed. There is no traditional idealization of Alexander, who was often depicted with long locks and full, soft features as the embodiment of the image of Zeus, the sun god Helios, or Apollo.

Around Alexander, only a few Macedonians can be recognized by cap-like helmets - also due to the destruction of the mosaic. However, the predominant part of the picture - about three-quarters of the entire area - is given to the Persians. The Persians are wearing armor typical of Central Asia, similar to scales or shells made of plates. They cover the entire body and consist of rectangular iron or bronze sticks, tied together at the top, bottom or sides with cords. Depicted from a very bold angle, one of the Persians is trying to curb a frightened horse right in front of Darius; this horse probably belonged to one of the fallen warriors. The face of the dying man, who is just being run over by Darius' chariot, is reflected in his shield; this is the only face on the mosaic whose gaze is fixed on the viewer.

Graphic means in the mosaic reflected the turning point of the battle. On the one hand, the superiority of Alexander is shown. His regal posture and composure, which is reflected in his wide eye and in the spear piercing the body of the enemy, has such a stunning and overwhelming effect on his opponents that they turn in panic. On the other hand, the position of the body of Darius, three Persians fighting in front of him, numerous spears directed at an angle to the left and upwards, still reflect the original line of attack of the Persians, which pays tribute to the enemy of the Macedonians. At the same time, three spears at the right edge of the mosaic indicate movement in the opposite direction. The counter-movement of these enemy lines is repeated, by the way, in many respects in the trunk and branches of a bare tree.

The interpretation of the battle in the mosaic coincides with the historical information we have: in both general battles of the campaign in Asia (at Issus and at Gaugamela, Alexander decided the outcome of the battle through a decisive tactical maneuver. In each case, he rushed into the enemy offensive lines, surrounded by his horse hetairos, broke resistance to such a sudden attack and quite unexpectedly appeared before Darius, who then fled.

Evidence that the plot of the battle at Issus is depicted on the mosaic has not been found (except for similar descriptions of the battle at Arrian and Curtius). Perhaps the symbolic battle is not tied to any particular battle, but is intended to glorify the exploits of Alexander in the Asian campaign, to present the typology of his victory.

Cassandra by Philoxenus of Eretria, a late 4th-century Greek artist. BC e. The time reference of the creation of the picture, made from literary data, is confirmed by the manner of execution with a limited set of colors used and the method of drawing, characteristic of the early Hellenistic period.

Today it's the turn of the mosaic. I invite you on an exciting journey through the world's temples and museums in order to get acquainted with the best examples of the world's mosaic art.

1. "Battle of Issus"

"Alexander Mosaic"- one of the most famous mosaic images of antiquity - lined with one and a half million pieces. This miracle was discovered during excavations of the ancient city of Pompeii on the floor of one of the rooms houses of the Faun and then transferred to National Archaeological Museum Naples where anyone can see it today. A grandiose mosaic panel (313 × 582 cm) depicts Alexander the Great attacking the Persian king Darius III. Unfortunately, the mosaic has not been completely preserved. Yes, this is not surprising, given what happened to Pompeii. However, Alexander's robes can still be seen in the image. He is without a helmet, in fine linen armor, decorated on his chest with the image of the head of the Gorgon Medusa.

Here is the whole mosaic. At first it was located in the museum on the floor, but then it was hung on the wall so that it was convenient to contemplate this splendor:

And here is a larger fragment with Alexander. Look how detailed his clothes are!

2. Mosaic of the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna

The incomplete preservation of the "Battle of Issus" is rather an exception to the rule, because mosaic images are among the most durable. Created by the skillful hands of craftsmen several centuries ago, they still have not lost their splendor. A fine example of such preservation can be seen in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. The interior of the basilica impresses with its rich splendor. The walls of the temple are decorated with numerous mosaics, but the largest and most famous of them are in the lower level of the apse (a semicircular ledge of the building). These are portraits of the Byzantine emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora, which are of particular value, as they were created during their lifetime.

Justinian I surrounded by nobles and clergy:

Empress Theodora with her magnificent retinue:

The emperor and his wife are depicted here as those who ordered the construction of the temple (donators) with precious liturgical vessels in their hands. The mosaics represent a single composition and are made in such a way that the two processions seem to be moving towards each other, simultaneously heading towards the altar.

3. "Poltava battle" by Mikhail Lomonosov

It's no secret that Mikhail Lomonosov was a multi-talented person: a scientist, writer, poet, historian and philosopher. The owner of a lively inquisitive mind and outstanding abilities, he, of course, could not ignore artistic creativity. But since Lomonosov was primarily interested in the practical side and the ultimate usefulness of any type of activity, his choice fell on the mosaic. Lomonosov's mosaics became part of his activities as a scientist developing methods for the production of glass and smalt.

To create a large-scale canvas "Poltava battle", a picture was first drawn on cardboard. Lomonosov did not know how to draw, and for this purpose one of the city painters was hired. However, he laid out the mosaic with his own hands, along with 8 assistants. The result was a grandiose (481 x 644 cm) panel depicting one of the most intense moments of the Battle of Poltava. Peter I appears before the contemplator in the form of a bold commander leading Russian troops into battle. He makes the last trip to the battlefield at a moment when the outcome of the battle is already a foregone conclusion, but the situation is dangerous for the life of the king. To protect the autocrat, even at the cost of his own life, he is blocked by a simple soldier. By placing the figure of a soldier in the center of the composition, Lomonosov emphasized the role of the people in the battle with the enemy.

You can see this grandiose mosaic of Lomonosov today at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

4. Mosaic in the Pavilion Hall of the Hermitage

The interior of the Pavilion Hall of the Hermitage was created in the middle of the 19th century by the architect Stackenschneider. This is one of the most beautiful and unusual halls of the palace. You can write about it endlessly, but today I would like to draw your attention to the amazing mosaic on the floor of the hall, which is a half-sized copy of the mosaic floor of one of the terms of the ancient Roman city of Okryculum, near Rome. A copy was created by Russian mosaicists from the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. Even reduced by half, this copy is huge and amazing!

5. Map of the USSR from colored stones "Industry of socialism"

The creation of magnificent mosaics from precious and semiprecious stones does not seem unusual to us, because Russia is rich in temples and palaces, in which many such masterpieces have been preserved. But "jewelry" mosaics continued to be created in the 20th century!

This largest geographical map in the world is made of precious and semi-precious stones in mosaic technique. 27 square meters depicting a genuine physical map of the Soviet Union on a scale of 1:1,500,000 with all the seas and rivers, mountains and deposits, large cities and industrial enterprises are today stored in the All-Russian Scientific Research Geological Institute named after Academician Karpinsky. By creating this giant mosaic panel, which would display all the victories of the social industry, the Communist Party of the USSR decided to mark the 20th anniversary of October in 1937. The model of the mosaic was made at the Academy of Arts, carefully choosing the color scheme in accordance with the characteristics of each specific area. All stone is domestic. Heights and land - Ural jasper, water areas - lapis lazuli, lowlands - amazonite.

Here's what this beauty looks like up close:

Currently St. Petersburg craftsmen are restoring the precious (in every sense of the word) map and promise that by the end of 2012 the work will be completed.

What famous mosaics are missing from this list, in your opinion?

Alexander the Great

Plutarch's story and paintings by old masters

ARTICLE TWO

See the beginning of the cycle in No. 3, 7/2010

In whose heart Alexander is still not alive
for his royal favors?
Dante. Feast

VI. Battle of Alexander with Darius (at Issus or Gaugamela)

The famous antique mosaic depicting the battle between Alexander and Darius III Codomanus was discovered in 1831 during excavations in Pompeii on the floor of the so-called House of the Faun. It is currently kept in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, and a copy of it is located in the House of the Faun. The mosaic itself, in turn, is a copy of a painting by Apelles or Philoxenus of Eritrea (it was not possible to attribute it unambiguously).

Battle of Alexander with Darius III Kodoman.mosaic panel.
OK. 100 BC e. National Archaeological Museum, Naples

The mosaic depicts Alexander the Great attacking Darius III Codomanus. Alexander on the left. If this is indeed an image of the battle at Gaugamela, then he “is not on Bukefal, for Bukefal,” explains Plutarch, “was no longer young and his strength had to be spared.” Alexander without a helmet, in a rich “double linen armor” (Plutarch specifies that he was taken “from the booty captured at Issus”; therefore, this could not have been the battle of Issus). He spears the bodyguard of the Persian king, although the impression is that Darius, facing Alexander, attacks. However, this impression is erroneous: the horses, on the contrary, carry away the chariot of Darius from the battlefield.

The mosaic captures an interesting moment. Behind Darius you can see the sarissa (long, up to six meters long spears used by the famous Macedonian phalanx). They are directed towards Alexander, so at first glance it seems that this is the army of Darius. But the Persians had no sarissa! Therefore, it can be assumed that Alexander makes a maneuver, and that his soldiers surrounded Darius. The mosaic is difficult to compare with written sources, but nevertheless it captures some of the tactical elements of the battle.

“Despite the fact that his(Alexandra. - A.M.) forces were significantly inferior in number to the forces of the barbarians, Alexander did not allow himself to be surrounded, on the contrary, bypassing the left wing of the enemy army with his right wing, he hit the Persians in the flank and turned the barbarians standing against him to flight. Fighting in the front ranks, Alexander was wounded in the thigh with a sword, according to Haret, by Darius himself, for it came to hand-to-hand combat between them. But Alexander, speaking about this battle in a letter to Antipater, does not name the one who inflicted the wound on him. He writes that he was wounded in the thigh with a dagger, but that the wound was not dangerous. Alexander won a brilliant victory, destroyed more than one hundred and ten thousand enemies, but could not capture Darius, who, fleeing, outstripped him by four or five stages. During the chase, Alexander managed to capture the king's chariot and bow.

(Plutarch. Alexander, 20)

The escape of Darius is especially widely covered by ancient authors precisely in connection with the Battle of Issus, which is why this fresco is more often called that way. But, perhaps, it depicts some kind of symbolic battle and glorifies the military genius of Alexander.

The face of Alexander in the mosaic bears a marked resemblance to his well-known busts. The whole drama of this battle is conveyed by the facial expressions of Alexander and Darius.

1529. Munich, Alte Pinakothek

Albrecht Altdorfer. Battle of Alexander the Great with Darius at Issus.
Detail: women participating in the battle

The plot of Altdorfer's painting was not in doubt. It was ordered by Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria precisely as the "Battle of Issus". The picture is wonderful in many ways.

Firstly, the very fact of the artist's appeal to the historical theme: this was the first attempt to depict such a plot in the art of the Northern Renaissance - the first and, perhaps, the most impressive! Secondly, the concept and grandeur of the artistic result: relatively small in size (158.4 x 120.3 cm), the picture makes a grandiose impression. A huge (in terms of the number of figures) battle scene is depicted against the background - one can safely say - a global landscape.

This thesis is confirmed by the fact that the point in space, to which the artist mentally raised himself, allowed him not only to survey the entire battlefield, but very accurately reproduce the vast area of ​​the Mediterranean: in the center we see Cyprus, beyond the isthmus - the Red Sea, on the right - Egypt and the Nile Delta with seven arms, on the left - the Persian Gulf, below on a pointed mountain - the Tower of Babel. This is not just a bird's-eye height - this is a cosmic scale! In essence, this is the first picture depicting a segment of the earth's circumference from a great height and with a pronounced curvature of the earth's horizon.

With a large scale, the artist achieves fantastic detail: on the fragment of the picture we cite, you can see the finest details of the clothes and jewelry of women participating in the battle.

Some researchers argue that the depiction of women in this battle is an invention of Altdorfer and that there is no historical evidence for this. Meanwhile, Curtius Rufus, describing the marching order of the Persians, lists:

“The marching formation was like this. In front, on silver altars, they carried fire, which the Persians consider eternal and sacred. The magicians sang ancient hymns. They were followed by 365 young men dressed in purple cloaks, according to the number of days of the year, since the Persians also divided the year into the same number of days. Then the white horses drove the chariot dedicated to Jupiter, followed by a horse of great stature, called the horse of the Sun. Golden branches and white robes adorned the ruling horses. Not far from them were 10 chariots richly decorated with gold and silver. Behind them are horsemen of 12 tribes in various clothes and armed in different ways. Next came those whom the Persians call "immortals", numbering up to 10 thousand, no one else had such barbaric magnificent clothes: they had golden necklaces, cloaks embroidered with gold, and long-sleeved tunics adorned with precious stones. At a short distance there were the so-called relatives of the king, numbering up to 15 thousand. This crowd, with its almost feminine luxury in attire, stood out more for its pomp than for the beauty of its weapons. The courtiers who followed them, who usually kept the royal clothes, were called spearmen. They walked in front of the king's chariot, in which he towered over the rest. On both sides, the chariot was decorated with gold and silver figures of the gods, precious stones sparkled on the pole, and above them towered two golden statues, each a cubit high: one - Nina, the other - Bela. Between them was a sacred golden image, similar to an eagle with outstretched wings. The clothes of the king himself surpassed everything else in luxury: a purple tunic with a white stripe woven in the middle; a cloak embroidered with gold, with golden hawks, converging beaks, girded like a woman with a sash. The king hung an akinak to him in a scabbard adorned with precious stones. The headdress of the king, called by the Persians “kidaris”, was decorated with purple and white strings. Behind the chariot were 10,000 spearmen with spears richly decorated with silver and arrows with gold tips. About 200 close nobles followed to the right and left of the king. Their detachment was closed by 30 thousand infantrymen, accompanied by 400 royal horses. Behind them, at a distance of one stage, the chariot was carried by the mother of the king Sisygambis, in another chariot was his wife. A crowd of women on horseback accompanied the queens. They were followed by 15 wagons, called harmaks: they contained the royal children, their educators and many eunuchs, who were not at all despised by these peoples. Then 360 royal concubines rode, also dressed in royal attire, then 600 mules and 300 camels carried the royal treasury: they were accompanied by a detachment of shooters. Behind them are the wives of relatives and friends of the king and crowds of merchants and convoy servants. Detachments of lightly armed warriors, each with its own commander, were the last to close the line.

(K. Ruf. History of Alexander, III, 3: 9–25)

Maps compiled by modern historians, reconstructing the course of the battle on the basis of historical documents, strikingly coincide with the depiction of the battle in Altdorfer's painting.

Map of the Battle of Issus

The artist captured the moment when the battle comes to an end; the army on the right wins. In the picture, we see the image of a griffin on the banners of the Macedonians - this is the legendary coat of arms of the Macedonian kingdom. The Macedonian cavalry in shining armor cuts into the enemy line with two wedges. In front - Alexander.

On the shields of his horse (they are in the form of two medallions) the words Alexander(front medallion) and Magnus(“Great”; back medallion).

In the camp of the Persians, the chariot of Darius is clearly visible; it stands out sharply in the ranks of the regiments of the Persians. Horses swiftly carry Darius' chariot from the battlefield. It was this moment that Altdorfer portrayed.

Plutarch, describing this battle, says:

“Alexander won a brilliant victory, destroyed more than one hundred and ten thousand enemies, but could not capture Darius, who, fleeing, outstripped him by four or five stages. During the chase, Alexander managed to capture the king's chariot and bow.

(Plutarch. Alexander, 20)

F. Schachermeier, the largest researcher of Alexander's life, writes: “Darius found himself in the thick of the battle, and then something unimaginable happened: the knight gave in to the knight. Instead of leading the army, leading the fighting foot soldiers and such successful coastal detachments, Darius, seized with panic fear, took to flight. His act can be called cowardly. But after all, even such an excellent warrior as Hector fell victim to the panic that seized him during the battle with Achilles. Darius left his camp, his army, and even his chariot to the conqueror. Alexander did not pursue him, but turned towards the shore to capture Nabarzan. He also took off running. Persian resistance was broken. Probably not much more than two hours have passed since the beginning of the battle, since Alexander pursued the enemy for quite a long time, until dusk.

It is strange that Rosa Maria and Rainer Hagen, talented researchers and authors of the wonderful book “What Great Pictures Say” (unfortunately not yet translated into Russian), claim that Altdorfer depicted the pursuit Alexander Darius, which is not mentioned in any historical source, and that the artist, in their opinion, followed the documents only in cases where these evidence fit into his own concept. But Altdorfer does not portray persecution Darius; he depicts exactly the moment that Plutarch speaks of: Alexander puts Darius to flight at the moment of the battle itself. So Altdorfer in this matter is quite historically reliable.

Altdorfer reproduces this decisive battle for Alexander as an event of a universal scale: the heavens also participate in this exciting drama - this battle seems to be repeated in them, it is between gloomy clouds and the setting sun shining with gold. The cartouche, appearing in heaven like the finger of God, proclaims (in Latin):

“Alexander the Great defeated the last Darius, after 100,000 Persian foot soldiers and more than 10,000 horsemen were killed and the mother, wife and children of King Darius were taken prisoner, while Darius fled with 1,000 horsemen.”

Under the brush of Altdorfer, this battle takes on the scale of a kind of Armageddon - in Christian eschatology, the place of the last battle between good and evil (angels and demons) at the end of time at the end of the world, where “the kings of all the inhabited earth” will participate (Rev. 16:14-16) .

Altdorfer apparently pursued several goals in creating this masterpiece of his. In particular, he wanted to capture Alexander's famous strategy, which allowed him to win victories over armies that outnumbered his legions many times over. And it is no coincidence that this picture of Altdorfer aroused admiration from another great commander - Napoleon. In 1800, the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, where the painting was located, was plundered by Napoleon's soldiers. For fourteen years it was kept by Napoleon in his Saint-Cloud Palace, until the Prussian troops discovered it and returned it to Munich.

So, we have no doubts about what exactly captivated Napoleon - certainly, it was Alexander's military genius, evidence of which was Altdorfer's masterpiece. Obviously, the customer of the painting, Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria, also experienced similar feelings. It is noteworthy that Altdorfer depicted Alexander as a medieval knight in a tournament, exactly as Wilhelm IV himself is depicted in an engraving in his Tournament Book of Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria.

Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria at a tournament in 1512.
From the Tournament Book of Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria.
Bavarian State Library

In the same year, a medal with the image of William IV as a knight was minted.

Medal depicting William IV as a knight. 1512

Was this medal not a model for Altdorfer when creating the figure of Alexander in the “Battle of Issus”?

Altdorfer's painting had a significant impact on the interpretation of this plot by later masters. It is especially clearly felt in the painting by Jan Brueghel the Elder “The Battle of Issus” (or, again, a dilemma, “The Battle of Gaugamela” (1602).

Albrecht Altdorfer. Battle of Alexander the Great with Darius at Issus.Fragment

Jan Brueghel the Elder. Battle of Issus or Gaugamela. 1602. Paris. Louvre

VII. Darius' family appears before Alexander

The next episode from Plutarch's story, which served as a theme for the artists, took place after the battle of Issus, in which Darius survived. Having fled, he left his family at the mercy of the conqueror. And now the family of Darius appears before Alexander.

“Alexander was about to dine when he was informed that the captured mother, wife and two unmarried daughters of Darius, seeing his chariot and bow, sobbed and began to beat their chests, believing that the king had died. For a long time Alexander was silent: the misfortunes of the family of Darius worried him more than his own fate. Finally, he sent Leonnatus, instructing him to inform the women that Darius was alive, and they had nothing to fear from Alexander, for he waged a war for supreme dominion only with Darius, and they would be given everything that they used before, when Darius still ruled. These words seemed merciful and benevolent to the women, but Alexander's actions were even more humane. He allowed them to bury the Persians who fell in battle - everyone they wished, taking clothes and jewelry from war booty for this purpose - did not deprive the Darius family of the honors that it had previously enjoyed, did not reduce the number of servants, and even increased the funds for its maintenance. .

However, the most regal and beautiful beneficence of Alexander was that these noble and chaste women, who were in his captivity, did not have to hear, fear, or expect anything that could disgrace them. No one had access to them, did not see them, and they led such a life as if they were not in an enemy camp, but in a sacred and pure girl's peace. But, according to stories, the wife of Darius was the most beautiful of all the queens, just as Darius was the most handsome and tall among men; their daughters were like their parents. Alexander, who apparently believed that the ability to control oneself for the king was more important than even the ability to defeat enemies, did not touch the captives; in general, before his marriage, he did not know a single woman, except for Barsina. Barsina, the widow of Memnon, was taken prisoner near Damascus. She received a Greek upbringing [here the text is corrupted in the original] and was distinguished by a good character; her father was Artabazus, the son of the king's daughter. According to Aristobulus, Alexander followed the advice of Parmenion, who invited him to get close to this beautiful and noble woman. Looking at other beautiful and stately captives, Alexander said jokingly that the sight of Persian women was painful for the eyes. Wanting to oppose their attractiveness with the beauty of his self-control and chastity, the king did not pay any attention to them, as if they were not living women, but lifeless statues.

(Plutarch. Alexander, 21)

Paolo Veronese. Darius' family before Alexander. 1565–1567

It is noteworthy that there is nothing Persian in the appearance of Darius’s relatives in P. Veronese’s painting “Darius’ Family Before Alexander”: the ladies are depicted in luxurious European outfits, contemporary to the artist. As for Alexander, his attire reveals a mixture of antique and medieval clothes. If not for the stockings and long sleeves of his clothes, he really could be imagined as an ancient commander. A stylistic hodgepodge is also found in the clothes accompanying him: short dresses worn in antiquity and medieval armor.

Veronese's painting had a strong influence on generations of subsequent artists. One of the clear evidence of this is a painting on the same subject by Gaspar Diziani.

Gaspard Diziani. Darius' family before Alexander the Great. 18th century

Often, Renaissance artists can be reproached for anachronism: the characters do not look appropriate for the era in which they lived. It even goes so far as to say that the Renaissance did not revive Antiquity at all. But the fact is that European masters by no means always - and rather rarely even - had the goal of achieving archaeological reliability. Knowledge of antiquity took place, but to achieve archaeological accuracy - such a task has not yet been set. Even today, when the task of authenticity (that is, the embodiment of a historical plot in full accordance with the true realities of the time) in various arts is being solved with impressive results, the issue of reliability is still very acute.

But back to the plot itself. Diodorus Siculus adds a curious detail to this story, which was embodied in pictorial interpretations:

“The king at dawn, together with his most beloved friend, Hephaestion, came to the women. Both of them were dressed in the same way, but Hephaestion was taller and more beautiful, and Sisigamba, mistaking him for a king, prostrated herself before him. Those present began to shake their heads and point at Alexander with their hands. Sisigamba, ashamed of her mistake, prostrated herself again before Alexander. But the king, lifting her up, said: “Don't worry, mother! He is also Alexander. Calling the old woman by the name of her mother, the most affectionate word on earth, he made it clear to the unfortunate how friendly he would treat them in the future. By confirming that she would become a second mother to him, he actually proved the veracity of his words.

(Diodorus Siculus.
Historical Library, 17:37)

Already the painting by Veronese gives grounds to believe that the artist captured exactly the moment when Sisigamba mistakenly addresses Hephaestion, mistaking him for Alexander. However, there are examples that even more clearly depict precisely this oversight of hers. Such is the drawing by an unknown master of the 17th century on this plot.

Unknown master.
Darius Sisigamba's mother mistakenly addresses
to Hephaestion instead of Alexander. 1696

VIII. Alexander at the body of Darius

The end of Darius was truly tragic. At the battle of Gaugamela, he again, as at Issus, fled from the battlefield. We cannot here detail the course of subsequent events; the main thing in them is that a rebellion was ripening against Darius within his entourage. The courtiers left him in the hope of surrendering to Alexander. Under such circumstances, Darius' persistence in resisting Alexander led to a mutiny. As a result, Darius was mortally wounded by his own bodyguard. Subsequently, Alexander took revenge on the traitors of Darius and felt the moral right to punish his killers by acting as his protector. Thus, he, in essence, legitimized his right to the throne. “Never has the winner, - sums up F. Schachermeier, - inherited the vanquished under more favorable circumstances.”

And again, Plutarch (and the artists along with him) tells this story with the obvious intention of demonstrating the generosity of Alexander, and thereby, one might say, deifies him. (In fact, this was Plutarch's goal.)

“All showed the same zeal, but only sixty horsemen broke into the enemy camp along with the king. Ignoring the silver and gold scattered everywhere in abundance, galloping past numerous wagons that were crowded with children and women and rolled aimlessly and without charioteers, the Macedonians rushed after those who ran ahead, believing that Darius was among them. Finally, they found Darius lying on a chariot, pierced by many spears and already dying. Darius asked for a drink, and Polystratus brought cold water; Darius, having quenched his thirst, said: “The fact that I cannot repay gratitude for the good deed done to me is the pinnacle of my misfortune, but Alexander will reward you, and the gods will reward Alexander for the kindness that he showed to my mother, my wife and my children. Give him my handshake." With these words, he took the hand of Polystratus and immediately died. Alexander went up to the corpse and, with undisguised grief, took off his cloak and covered the body of Darius.

(Plutarch. Alexander, 43)

Gustave Dore. Alexander at the body of Darius.Engraving

IX. Death of Alexander

Plutarch, relying on the "Diaries" that were kept by Alexander's entourage, describes in some detail the course of the emperor's illness. Read about his last days:

"On the twenty-fifth day(diseases. - A.M.), transferred to another part of the palace, he slept a little, but the fever did not subside. When the military leaders came to him, he could not utter a word, the same thing happened again on the twenty-sixth day. The Macedonians suspected that the king was already dead; shouting and threatening, they demanded from the royal comrades to be allowed into the palace. Finally, they achieved their goal: the doors of the palace were opened, and the Macedonians in some chitons, one at a time, passed by the bed of the king. On the same day, Python and Seleucus were sent to the temple of Serapis to ask God if it was necessary to transfer Alexander to his temple. God ordered to leave Alexander in place. On the twenty-eighth day in the evening, Alexander died.

(Plutarch. Alexander, 76)

Until now, the hypothesis of Alexander's poisoning has not been proven or refuted, although at the time of death "no one suspected that Alexander had been poisoned" ( Plutarch).

Engraving on a painting Carl von Piloty "Death of Alexander the Great". 1886

The biography of Plutarch contains stories about a number of episodes that were chosen by artists as themes for their paintings. We have only covered the most frequently illustrated stories. In addition, it should be borne in mind that a number of topics related to Alexander, the artists drew from other authors. So, for example, the plot “Apelles paints a portrait of Campaspa” was borrowed by artists from Pliny the Elder’s “Natural History”: Campaspa was Alexander’s favorite concubine. Apelles, his court painter, who painted her portrait, fell in love with her. Alexander, as a sign of admiration for his creation, gave him Campaspe.

Even this very brief review of paintings on scenes from the life of Alexander the Great convinces us that his iconography is very extensive. It is also obvious that in order to understand these plots and pictures, knowledge of literary primary sources is necessary.