The systems approach is often mentioned in connection with tasks organizational development: a systematic approach to solving company problems, a systematic approach to making changes, a systematic approach to building a business, etc. What is the meaning of such statements? What is a systems approach? How does it differ from a "non-systemic" approach? Let's try to figure it out.

Let's start with the definition of "system". Russell Ackoff (in Planning the Future of the Corporation) defines it as follows: "A system is a collection of two or more elements that meets the following conditions: (1) the behavior of each element affects the behavior of the whole, (2) the behavior of the elements and their effect on the whole are interdependent, (3) if there are subgroups of elements, each of them affects the behavior of the whole and none of them independently has such an effect. Thus, the system is such a whole that cannot be divided into non-independent parts. Any part of the system, being separated from it, loses its properties. So a person's hand, separated from his body, cannot draw. The system has essential qualities that its parts lack. For example, a person can compose music and solve mathematical problems, but no part of his body is capable of this.

With a systematic approach to solving practical problems, any object or phenomenon is considered as a system and at the same time as part of some larger system. Ackoff defines a systematic approach in cognitive activity as follows: (1) identification of the system of which the object of interest is a part, (2) explanation of the behavior or properties of the whole, (3) explanation of the behavior or properties of the object of interest to us in terms of its role or functions as a whole, of which it is a part.

In other words, faced with a problem, a manager who thinks systematically does not rush to look for the culprit, but first of all finds out what conditions external to the situation under consideration caused this problem. For example, if an angry customer calls about missed delivery dates for equipment, the most obvious response would be to punish the production staff for not completing the order on time. However, if you look closely, the roots of the problem can be found far beyond the production processes, when the requirements for the ordered equipment were not clearly defined in the specifications, changed several times in the course of work, and at the conclusion of the contract, the sellers set unrealistic deadlines, without taking into account the specifics of the order. Who is to be punished here? Most likely, you need to change the system of sales and order management!

This topic is rich in meaning. Much can be said here ... I will leave it as a reserve for a future article.

Integrity, which allows considering the system at the same time as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchy of the structure, i.e. the presence of a plurality (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of elements of a lower level to elements of a higher level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: managing and managed. One is subordinate to the other.

Structuring, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of the system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of the structure itself.

Multiplicity, allowing the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

The systems approach is a component general theory systems and also proceeds from the key concept - systems. The system as an integral set of interrelated elements is not reduced to a simple sum of the properties of its elements. Social sciencies, and political science as well, study purposeful or teleological systems. Man, human society are goal-oriented systems, the main features of which are goal-setting, memory and information exchange based on the feedback principle. By the way, man-made artificial systems also use the principle of feedback and memory. David Easton applied general systems theory to policy analysis. It may be noted that in relation to political science Easton played the same role as Parsons in sociology. We list the main works of Easton: "Political System" (1953), "The Structure of Political Analysis" (1965), "System Analysis political life"(1965).

According to Easton, politics is an authoritative-imperious distribution of values ​​for the whole society. The political system can be defined as the totality of political interactions in society. The distribution of values ​​in society is one of the functions necessary for the preservation of society. The main question for Easton is this: how does the political system maintain stability, what are the mechanisms for its self-preservation?

Easton proposes to consider the political system as a "black box", ignoring what happens inside it, since the systems approach is mainly interested in the relationship of the system with the environment.

The environment can be considered in two aspects: both intra-social and extra-social. The political system constantly maintains links with the environment - it is an "open" system. See diagram 2 (Sharan P. Comparative political science. Part I. M., 1993. - P. 185).

System(Greek) are objects that have integrity and consist of interacting with each other and environment parts and elements to achieve a specific goal.

The application of a systematic approach increases the efficiency of organizing and managing complex systems, which include commercial activities.

The main features and principles of a systematic approach are considered in a number of works by both foreign scientists (J1. von Bertalanffy, R. Johnson, F. Kast, R. Rosenzweig, J. Gig), and domestic (A. Bogdanov, A. Berg, V. Afanasiev, M. Segrov, E. Minko).

The general theory of systems, created by A. A. Bogdanov (1873-1928) and continued by the Austrian scientist L. von Bertalanffy (1901-1972), highlights the main aspects, features and principles of the system approach, which make it possible to characterize an object as a system phenomenon.

The systems approach performs heuristic functions(Eureka - Greek. I open, I look for - a word expressing joy, satisfaction).

Its positive role is that:

• · the concepts and principles of the systemic approach make it possible to identify more real opportunities than are noted in traditional methods;
• In addition, to identify the most complete links and search for specific elements of integrity, a systematic approach allows you to find a new explanation compared to traditional methods;
• · complex objects have many division options, and the types of connections between elements can be different. The systematic approach allows to determine the criterion for choosing an adequate variant of division, taking into account the unit of analysis.

With the advent of new scientific and applied problems, the insufficiency of traditional approaches for solving such new problems is revealed, the insufficiency of methods of explanation is revealed, therefore the principles of a systematic approach help to approach the subject of study in a new way.

characteristic developmental features socio-economic systems are:

• · integration of scientific knowledge, growth in the number of interdisciplinary problems;
• · the complexity of the problems and the need to study them in the unity of technical, economic, social, psychological, managerial and other aspects;
• complication of the problems and objects to be solved;
• increase in the number of links between objects;
• dynamism of changing situations;
• the scarcity of resources;
• · increasing the level of standardization and automation of elements of production and management processes;
• · globalization of competition, production, cooperation, standardization, etc.;
• Strengthening the role of the human factor in management, etc.

The listed features cause the inevitability of applying a systematic approach, since, in our opinion, only on its basis can the quality of management decisions be ensured.

Systems approach - it is a methodology for studying objects as systems.

The system is formed by two components:

• · external environment, including entrance and exit systems, communication with the external environment and feedback;
• · internal structure, i.e. a set of interrelated components that ensure the process of the influence of the subject of control on the object, the processing of the input of the system into its output and the achievement of the goals of the system.

Production system - this is the unity of the material and non-material components of the analyzed object, its external and internal relations, ensuring the rationality of information, production, management and other processes for processing the input of the system into its output and achieving the goals of the subject of management.

An object (workshop, enterprise, organization, etc.) that does not meet these conditions is called unsystematic, chaotic. In a market economy, the goal of production systems should be to ensure (increase) the competitiveness of products. The main terms and concepts of the systematic approach are given in Table. 2.1.

Table 2.1. Basic terms and concepts in the field of a systematic approach

Terms and concepts	The essence of the term and concept in relation to socio-economic systems
1. System	An integral complex of interconnected components, which has a special unity with the external environment and is a subsystem of a higher order system (global system). The unity of the system with the external environment determines its relationship with the operation of objective economic laws
2. System analysis	Analysis based on a comprehensive study of the properties of the system using scientific approaches to identify its strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats, the formation of a strategy for functioning and development
3. System structure	A set of system components that are in a certain order and combine local goals for best achievement the main (global) goal of the system. The number of system components and their connections should be minimal. but sufficient to achieve the main goal of the system
	The material substratum of the system, the totality of people, means of production and objects of labor
5. Connections (in the system and with the external environment)	Information and documentary flows in the system between its components for making and coordinating the implementation of management decisions. Information must be of the required volume and quality, in the right place and at the right time.
6. System input	Components entering the system (raw materials, materials, components, different kinds energy, new equipment, personnel, documents, information, etc.)
7. System energy	People and tools, innovations, inside information. Management should be directed towards rational use energy
8. Substance of the system	Items of labor (everything that is processed in the system)
9. System exit	Goods (products, services, innovations, etc.) produced by the system in accordance with the plan
10. Purpose of the system	The final state of the system or its output, to which it tends by virtue of its structural organization. (The goal, for example, of a production system might be to achieve the required mass of newly created value by producing competitive goods for consumers.)
11. External environment of the system	Components of the macro environment (country), the infrastructure of the region in which the system is located, and the micro environment of the system with which it has direct or indirect links. The input and output components of the system are not related to the external environment, they are related to the external environment.
12. Feedback
13. Method of acceptance managerial	The method of choosing methods for collecting and processing information, forms of motivation in combination with the decision-making method. Determines the speed and quality of decision making
14. Management organization	Finding the optimal combination of energy and matter of the system in space and time, adoption, documentation, control and coordination of the implementation of the decision
15. Correlator organizations management	Operator of information accumulation, control and regulation of the parameters of the system functioning. The more accurately the information reflects the structure of the system, the higher the level of its organization.
16. Information	Necessary reflected diversity (necessary - the degree of description of the system: reflected - reflecting its content, structure, connections and decision-making method)
17. Apparatus for comparison	An element of the system that provides control over its functioning within the established parameters. It serves as the basis for constructing a functioning program and determines the legitimacy of the action or process being performed and its economy
18. Relationships in the system	The relationship between the components of the system, due to the implementation of the main goal. Rational construction of the system memory as the ability to store information ensures minimal decision-making costs
19. System building	Determining the number of system components necessary for normal functioning to achieve its goals, structuring the components by hierarchy levels (analysis) and establishing links between them. The correctness of structuring is checked by synthesis or addition of components, starting from the lower level of the hierarchy
20. System operation	Organization of the interaction of energy and matter of the system to achieve planned goals, coordination, accounting and control, motivation and regulation of the interaction of system components
21. System development	The process of improving the system based on the study of the mechanism of competition, the laws of reproduction, the development of needs, saving time and other factors that ensure the survival of the system
22. System Activators	Operators or system positives (e.g. competitive advantage) to be maintained or enhanced
23. System deactivators	Operators or Factors negative impact on the system (for example, threats), resulting in its destruction
24. System behavior	The way the system interacts with the external environment and the ordering of links in the structure of the system to achieve its goals. The study of the mechanisms of action of objective economic laws, the application of scientific approaches to management and the study of the properties of the system is a prerequisite for its optimal or rational behavior
25. Contradictions in the system	Actions of system components with opposite purposes or functions. Decrease in verbosity contributes to the normal functioning of the system and its development
26. Intervention	The method of influence of the subject of management (of a higher level) on the object, the method of regulating production or management processes in case of significant deviations from management standards
27. System training	The process of accumulating knowledge and mastering the skills of making rational management decisions

The study of the essence of management should begin with the definition of its components and the relationship between them and the external environment, establishing the differences between the management of the functioning of the system under given conditions and the management of the development of the system.

The purpose of control in the first case is the elimination of internal and external disturbances without changing the output parameters of the system, and in the second case, the change in input and output parameters in accordance with changes in the external environment.

The regulation of the system ensures such its activity, in which the state of the output of the system is leveled according to a given norm. Consequently, the main task is reduced to establishing a given state of the functioning of the system, provided by planning as a proactive control. The complexity of management depends primarily on the number of changes in the system and its environment. All changes have certain patterns or are random. The essence of management can be considered as a combination of the following concepts: management organization, management process and information.

It is possible to talk about the organization of management only when the goal and object of management are singled out. Therefore, the effectiveness of the organization of management largely depends on the clarity of the formulation of management objectives.

The main position of the system approach is that if an element belongs to the system or is contained in it. then it is always less than the system. systems approach behavioral

As a complex methodology of the process of cognition and analysis of systems, the systems approach is characterized by the following main features:

• The object under study is evaluated as a whole, regardless of the considered point of view;
• The solution of particular problems is subject to the solution of problems common to the entire system;
• cognition of an object is not limited to the functioning mechanism, but expands to reveal the internal patterns of the object's development;
• system elements that have secondary importance under certain conditions, may be significant when circumstances change.

Main principles systemic approach:

• · unity- the system is considered as a whole and as a set of parts;
• · integrity-- elements can be of different directions, but they are compatible at the same time;
• · dynamism - the ability of the system to change the state under the influence of directed or random factors;
• · interdependence of system and environment, i.e. the system manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment;
• · hierarchy - those. ranking of parts, each element of the system is considered as a subsystem, and the system itself is considered as an element of a more complex system;
• · organization - putting in order the constituent parts and the links that unite them;
• · plurality state and descriptions of the system - the construction of various models, each of which describes a certain state of the system;
• · decomposition - the possibility of dividing an object into component parts, each of which has goals arising from the overall goal of the system.

A number of interrelated perspectives for considering a systematic approach determines its essence:

• elemental, showing what elements the system consists of during its construction and study;
• Structural, revealing the internal organization of the system, the nature of the connections and methods of interaction between the components;
• functional, answering the question of what functions the system itself and its constituent components perform;
• communication, revealing the relationship of this system with others both horizontally (cooperation) and vertically (subordination);
• · integrative, showing the mechanisms, factors of conservation, improvement and development of the system;
• historical, answering the question of how, how the system arose, what stages it went through in its development and what are the trends (prospects) of its development.

When studying the humanities, it is important to understand how everything interacts there. After all, humanitarian knowledge is rich in abstract concepts, theories, judgments. To make it easier to understand any humanitarian discipline, you need to understand the basic principles of the structure of systems. After all, any object, process, is a system. And if you identify its elements and see the connections between them, it is very easy and simple to understand any, even the most complex material.

A systematic approach allows you to comprehensively understand the majority of scientific problems or educational goals. This is a universal theoretical approach that explains what to look for in the phenomenon under study, what elements and what connections.

By the way, that is why it is advisable to use in teaching children in which any process (historical or social), any concept is presented in the form of a system. I must say right away that the material here is quite complex and is of value only for knowledgeable people: colleagues, teachers, teachers, students.

Origins of the systems approach

How strange it is, our domestic scientist, the Bolshevik A.A., stood at the origins of the systematic approach. Bogdanov (Malinovsky). His fundamental work Tectology: A General Organizational Science was published in Austria in 1925/26. In his two-volume work, the scientist calls to look at any phenomenon as a system. It is not isolated, but connected with others. In general, to be serious, it was Bogdanov who stood at the origins of such a scientific paradigm as synergetics.

However, about A.A. Bogdanov was not remembered immediately, but only after his ideas were used by Ludwig von Bertallanffy in his fundamental work “General Theory of Systems”, published after the Second World War. In it, Bertallanffy did not refer to Bogdanov, but borrowed his ideas, in fact, as is customary among civilized Europeans.

It was only later in the course of historiographic research that they found out who the founder was. Therefore, today two authors of the considered approach stand out: A.A. Bogdanov (Malinovsky) and L. von Bertallanffy.

Principles and theses

Any object is a system. A system is a complex of interconnected elements.

For example, any object consists of at least atoms and molecules. Your phone is made up of elements. You, as a living organism, consist of at least three forms of matter: physical, chemical, biological. Your house is made up of bricks or concrete blocks. These concrete blocks themselves are composed of particles of cement, sand, etc.

The system is not in a vacuum. It functions in its own environment. The operating environment of a system is everything that surrounds it.

The environment influences the system (entry points). The latter reacts to the environment (exit points). For example, an internal combustion engine is a system, you can’t argue. It functions in the car. The machine for the engine - operating environments. It, as a system, receives fuel, which is converted into mechanical thrust. At the output, we have: the actual mechanical thrust, as a result of the operation of the engine, and the decay products of the fuel - exhaust gases. The latter are output through exit points.

There are several types of systems.

open are systems that completely merge with the environment. That is, they have no boundaries. In reality, completely open systems do not exist. We simply allow the existence of such systems in theory so that there is a starting point, an ideal type.

Closed are systems completely isolated from the environment. This also does not happen in reality, so that the object does not interact with the environment in any way. After all, then he is doomed to disbandment.

In reality, all systems are located on a spectrum from ideally open to ideally closed.

System examples

Read about the systemic structure of society.

Also, the policy is a complex of interrelated elements. The founders of the dissemination of a systematic approach in political science were David Easton and Gabriel Almond. According to their conclusions, politics is a system of state and non-state elements. Read more. It is clear that with the help of the described approach, social interaction, any political and historical processes are considered, everything is a system.

The system approach is currently used in cybernetics, IT-sphere, wherever there are artificial complex objects. It is also used in pedagogy. In particular, today the system-activity approach dominates. From his point of view, the educational process is a system.

Perhaps in the near future I will write an article about the application of this approach in reality, and at all levels of education: school, secondary, higher. Subscribe to new articles, share this article on social networks.

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………2

1. The concept of a systematic approach, its main features and principles ……………….2

2. Organizational system : main elements and types…………………………3

3. Systems theory …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Basic concepts and characteristics of general systems theory

Example: a bank from a systems theory point of view

4. The value of a systematic approach to management …………………………………………...7 Introduction

As it develops industrial Revolution, the growth of large organizational forms of business stimulated the emergence of new ideas about how enterprises function and how they should be managed. Today there is a developed theory that gives directions for achieving effective management. The first emerging theory is usually called the classical school of management, there are also the school of social relations, the theory of a systematic approach to organizations, the theory of probability, etc.

In my report, I want to talk about the theory of a systematic approach to organizations as ideas for achieving effective management.

1. The concept of a systematic approach, its main features and principles

In our time, an unprecedented progress in knowledge is taking place, which, on the one hand, has led to the discovery and accumulation of many new facts, information from various areas of life, and thus confronted humanity with the need to systematize them, to find the general in the particular, the constant in the changing. There is no unambiguous concept of a system. In the most general form, a system is understood as a set of interrelated elements that form a certain integrity, a certain unity.

The study of objects and phenomena as systems caused the formation of a new approach in science - a systematic approach.

The system approach as a general methodological principle is used in various branches of science and human activity. The epistemological basis (epistemology is a branch of philosophy, studying the forms and methods of scientific knowledge) is the general theory of systems, the beginning of the cat. put by the Australian biologist L. Bertalanffy. In the early 1920s, the young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began to study organisms as certain systems, summarizing his view in the book Modern Theory of Development (1929). In this book, he developed a systematic approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book "Robots, people and consciousness" (1967), he transferred the general theory of systems to the analysis of the processes and phenomena of social life. 1969 - "General Systems Theory". Bertalanffy turns his systems theory into a general disciplinary science. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for the structural similarity of the laws established in various disciplines, based on the cat. system-wide patterns can be deduced.

Let's define traits systems approach:

1. Syst. approach - a form of methodological knowledge, connected. with the study and creation of objects as systems, and applies only to systems.

2. Hierarchy of knowledge, requiring a multi-level study of the subject: the study of the subject itself - "own" level; the study of the same subject as an element of a wider system - a "superior" level; the study of this subject in relation to the elements that make up this subject is a “subordinate” level.

3. The system approach requires considering the problem not in isolation, but in the unity of relations with the environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and individual element, to make associations between general and particular goals.

In view of what has been said, we define the concept of a systematic approach:

Syst. an approach- this is an approach to the study of an object (problem, phenomenon, process) as a system, in a cat. the elements, internal and external relations, which most significantly affect the results of its functioning under study, and the goals of each of the elements, based on the general purpose of the object, are highlighted.

It can also be said that the systems approach - this is such a direction of the methodology of scientific knowledge and practical activity, which is based on the study of any object as a complex integral socio-economic system.

Let's turn to history.

Before becoming at the beginning of the XX century. management science rulers, ministers, commanders, builders, making decisions were guided by intuition, experience, traditions. Acting in specific situations, they sought to find the best solutions. Depending on experience and talent, a manager could expand the spatial and temporal boundaries of the situation and spontaneously comprehend his object of management more or less systematically. However, until the 20th century management was dominated by a situational approach, or management by circumstances. The defining principle of this approach is the adequacy of the managerial decision regarding a particular situation. Adequate in this situation is the decision that is the best from the point of view of changing the situation, immediately after the appropriate managerial impact has been exerted on it.

Thus, a situational approach is an orientation towards the nearest positive result ("and then we'll see..."). It is thought that "next" will again be the search for the best solution in the situation that arises. But the solution at the moment is the best, it may turn out to be completely different as soon as the situation changes or unaccounted for circumstances are revealed in it.

The desire to respond to each new turn or turn (change in vision) of the situation in an adequate way leads to the fact that the manager is forced to make more and more new decisions that run counter to the previous ones. He actually ceases to control events, but swims with their flow.

This does not mean that ad hoc management is ineffective in principle. A situational approach to decision-making is necessary and justified when the situation itself is extraordinary and the use of previous experience is obviously risky, when the situation changes quickly and in an unpredictable way, when there is no time to take into account all the circumstances. So, for example, rescuers of the Ministry of Emergency Situations often have to look for best solution within a particular situation. Nevertheless, in the general case, the situational approach is not effective enough and must be overcome, replaced or supplemented by a systematic approach.

1. Integrity, allowing to consider at the same time the system as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

2. hierarchical structure, those. the presence of a plurality (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of elements of a lower level to elements of a higher level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: managing and managed. One is subordinate to the other.

3. Structurization, allowing to analyze the elements of the system and their interrelationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of the system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of the structure itself.

4. multiplicity, allowing the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

2. Organizational system: main elements and types

Any organization is considered as an organizational and economic system that has inputs and outputs and a certain number of external relations. The term "organization" should be defined. There have been various attempts throughout history to identify this concept.

1. The first attempt was based on the idea of ​​expediency. Organization is an expedient arrangement of parts of the whole, which has a specific purpose.

2. Organization - a social mechanism for the implementation of goals (organizational, group, individual).

3. Organization - harmony, or correspondence, of parts between themselves and the whole. Any system develops on the basis of the struggle of opposites.

4. An organization is a whole that cannot be reduced to a simple arithmetic sum of its constituent elements. This is a whole that is always greater or less than the sum of its parts (it all depends on the effectiveness of the connections).

5. Chester Bernard (in the West is considered one of the founders of modern management theory): when people get together and officially decide to join their efforts to achieve common goals, they create an organization.

It was a retrospective. Today, an organization can be defined as a social community that brings together a number of individuals to achieve a common goal, which (individuals) act on the basis of certain procedures and rules.

Based on the previously given definition of the system, we define the organizational system.

Organizational system- this is a certain set of internally interconnected parts of the organization, forming a certain integrity.

The main elements of the organizational system (and hence the objects of organizational management) are:

· production

marketing and sales

finance

information

Personnel, human resources - have a system-forming quality, the efficiency of the use of all other resources depends on them.

These elements are the main objects of organizational management. But the organizational system has another side:

People. The task of the manager is to promote the coordination and integration of human activities.

Goals and tasks. The organizational goal is an ideal blueprint for the future state of the organization. This goal contributes to the unification of the efforts of people and their resources. Goals are formed on the basis of common interests, so the organization is a tool for achieving goals.

Organizational structure. A structure is a way of organizing the elements of a system. Organizational structure - there is a way to connect the various parts of the organization into a certain integrity (the main types of organizational structure are hierarchical, matrix, entrepreneurial, mixed, etc.). When we design and maintain these structures, we manage.

Specialization and separation labor. This is also a control object. The fragmentation of complex production processes, operations and tasks into components that require the specialization of human labor.

Organizational power- this is the right, ability (knowledge + skills) and willingness (will) of the leader to pursue his own line in the preparation, adoption and implementation of managerial decisions. Each of these components is necessary for the exercise of power. Power is interaction. A powerless and inefficient manager cannot organize the function of coordinating and integrating people's activities. Organizational power is not only a subject, but also an object of management.

Organizational culture- the system of traditions, beliefs, values, symbols, rituals, myths, norms of communication between people inherent in the organization. Organizational culture gives an organization its own identity. Most importantly, it brings people together, creates organizational integrity.

Organizational borders- these are material and non-material constraints that fix the isolation of this organization from other objects located in the external environment of the organization. The manager must have the ability to expand (in moderation) the boundaries of his own organization. In moderation means taking only what you can keep. To manage boundaries means to delineate them in time.

Organizational systems can be divided into closed and open:

Closed an organizational system is that system that has no connection with its external environment (i.e., it does not exchange products, services, goods, etc. with the external environment). An example is subsistence farming.

open the organizational system has connections with the external environment, i.e., other organizations, institutions that have connections with the external environment.

Thus, the organization as a system is a set of interrelated elements that form integrity (ie, internal unity, continuity, interconnection). Any organization is open system, because interacts with the external environment. It receives resources from the environment in the form of capital, raw materials, energy, information, people, equipment, etc., which become elements of its internal environment. Part of the resources with the help of certain technologies is processed, converted into products and services, which are then transferred to the external environment.

3. Systems theory

Let me remind you that systems theory was developed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 20th century. Systems theory deals with the analysis, design and operation of systems - independent business units that are formed by interacting, interconnected and interdependent parts. It is clear that any organizational form of business meets these criteria and can be studied using the concepts and tools of systems theory.

Any enterprise is a system that turns a set of resources invested in production - costs (raw materials, machines, people) - into goods and services. It functions within a larger system - a foreign policy, economic, social and technical environment in which it constantly enters into complex interactions. It includes a series of subsystems that are also interconnected and interact. Disruption of functioning in one part of the system causes difficulties in other parts of it. For example, a large bank is a system that operates within a wider environment, interacts with and is associated with it, and is also affected by it. Departments and branches of the bank are subsystems that must interact without conflict in order for the bank as a whole to work effectively. If something breaks in a subsystem, it will eventually (if left unchecked) affect the efficiency of the bank as a whole.

Basic concepts and characteristics of general systems theory:

1. System Components(elements, subsystems). Any system, regardless of openness, is defined through its composition. These components and the connections between them create the properties of the system, its essential characteristics.

2. System boundaries- these are various kinds of material and non-material constraints that distance the system from the external environment. From the point of view of the general theory of systems, each system is a part of a larger system (which is called a supersystem, supersystem, supersystem). In turn, each system consists of two or more subsystems.

3. Synergy(from the Greek - acting together). This concept is used to describe phenomena in which the whole is always greater or less than the sum of the parts that make up this whole. The system functions until the relations between the components of the system become antagonistic.

4. Input - Transform - Output. The organizational system in dynamics is represented as three processes. Their interaction gives a cycle of events. Any open system has an event loop. With a systematic approach, it is important to study the characteristics of an organization as a system, i.e. characteristics of "input", "process" ("transformation") and characteristics of "output". With a systematic approach based on marketing research, first the "exit" options, those. goods or services, namely what to produce, with what quality indicators, at what cost, for whom, in what time frame to sell and at what price. The answers to these questions should be clear and timely. At the “output”, as a result, there should be competitive products or services. Then determine "login" options, those. the need for resources (material, financial, labor and information) is investigated, which is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (the level of technology, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and the parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social, environmental and etc.). Last but not least, research "process" parameters that transforms resources into finished products. At this stage, depending on the object of study, production technology or management technology is considered, as well as factors and ways to improve it.

5. Life cycle. Any open system has a life cycle:

occurrenceÞ becomingÞ operationÞ crisisÞ collapse

6. Backbone element- an element of the system, on which the functioning of all other elements and the viability of the system as a whole depend to a decisive extent.

Characteristics of open organizational systems

1. Having an event loop.

2. Negative entropy(negoentropy, antientropy)

a) entropy in general systems theory refers to the general tendency of an organization to die;

b) an open organizational system, due to the ability to borrow the necessary resources from the external environment, can counteract this trend. This ability is called negative entropy;

c) an open organizational system exhibits a capacity for negative entropy, and due to this, some of them live for centuries;

d) for a commercial organization, the main criterion for negative entropy is its sustainable profitability over a significant time interval.

3. Feedback. Feedback is understood as information that is generated, collected, used by an open system for monitoring, evaluating, controlling and correcting one's own activities. Feedback allows the organization to receive information about possible or real deviations from the intended goal and make timely changes in the process of its development. Lack of feedback leads to pathology, crisis and the collapse of the organization. The people in the organization who collect and analyze information, interpret it, and systematize the flow of information have tremendous power.

4. Open organizational systems are inherent dynamic homeostasis. All living organisms show a tendency towards internal balance and balance. The process of maintaining a balanced state by the organization itself is called dynamic homeostasis.

5. Open organizational systems are characterized by differentiation- a trend towards growth, specialization and division of functions between the various components that form a given system. Differentiation is the system's response to a change in the external environment.

6. equifinality. Open organizational systems are capable, unlike closed systems, of achieving their goals in different ways, moving towards these goals from different starting conditions. There is not and cannot be a single and best method of achieving the goal. The goal can always be achieved different ways, and you can move to it with different speeds.

Let me give you an example: consider a bank from the point of view of systems theory.

An examination of the bank from a systems theory perspective would begin by refining the goals to help understand the nature of the decisions that need to be made in order to achieve those goals. It would be necessary to examine the external environment in order to understand the ways in which the bank interacts with its wider environment.

The researcher would then turn to the internal environment. In order to try to understand the main subsystems of the bank, interaction and connections with the system as a whole, the analyst would analyze the decision-making pathways, the most important information necessary for their acceptance, as well as the communication channels through which this information is transmitted.

Decision making, information system, communication channels are especially important for the systems analyst, because if they function poorly, the bank will be in a difficult position. In each area, a systematic approach has led to the emergence of new useful concepts and techniques.

Making decisions

Information systems

Communication channels

Fig. 1 Systems theory - basic elements

Making decisions

In the field of decision making, systems thinking has contributed to the classification various types solutions. The concepts of certainty, risk and uncertainty have been developed. Logical approaches to making complex decisions (many of which had a mathematical basis) were introduced, which was of great help to managers in improving the process and quality of decision making.

Information systems

The nature of the information at the disposal of the decision maker has an important influence on the quality of the decision itself, and it is not surprising that much attention has been paid to this issue. Those who develop management information systems try to give the right information to the right person at the right time. In order to do this, they need to know what decision will be made, when information will be provided, and how soon this information will arrive (if speed is an important element of decision making). Providing relevant information that improves the quality of decisions (and eliminates unnecessary information that simply increases costs) is a very significant circumstance.

Communication channels

Channels of communication in an organization are important elements in the decision-making process as they convey the required information. Systems analysts have provided many useful examples of deep understanding of the process of interconnection between organizations. Significant progress has been made in studying and solving the problems of "noise" and interference in communications, the problems of transition from one system or subsystem to another.

4. The value of a systematic approach to management

The value of a systems approach is that managers can more easily align their specific work with that of the organization as a whole if they understand the system and their role in it. This is especially important for the CEO, because the systems approach encourages him to maintain the necessary balance between the needs of individual departments and the goals of the entire organization. It makes him think about the flow of information going through the whole system and also emphasizes the importance of communication. The systems approach helps to identify the reasons for making inefficient decisions, it also provides the means and technique to improve planning and control.

A modern leader must have systems thinking, because:

The manager must perceive, process and systematize a huge amount of information and knowledge that are necessary for making managerial decisions;

The manager needs a systematic methodology, with the help of which he could correlate one direction of his organization's activity with another, and prevent quasi-optimization of managerial decisions;

The manager must see the forest behind the trees, the general behind the private, rise above everyday life and realize what place his organization occupies in the external environment, how it interacts with another, larger system, of which it is a part;

A systematic approach to management allows the manager to more productively implement his main functions: forecasting, planning, organization, leadership, control.

Systems thinking not only contributed to the development of new ideas about the organization (in particular, special attention was paid to the integrated nature of the enterprise, as well as the paramount importance and importance of information systems), but also provided the development of useful mathematical tools and techniques that greatly facilitate managerial decision-making, the use of more advanced planning and control systems. Thus, a systematic approach allows us to comprehensively evaluate any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of the input, process and output problems. The application of a systematic approach allows the best way to organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.

Despite all the positive results, systems thinking has still not fulfilled its most important purpose. The claim that it will allow the application of modern scientific methods to management has not yet been realized. This is partly because large-scale systems are very complex. It is not easy to grasp the many ways in which the external environment influences the internal organization. The interaction of many subsystems within the enterprise is not fully understood. The boundaries of systems are very difficult to establish, too broad a definition will lead to the accumulation of costly and unusable data, and too narrow - to a partial solution of problems. It will not be easy to formulate the questions that will arise before the enterprise, to determine with accuracy the information needed in the future. Even if the best and most logical solution is found, it may not be feasible. Nevertheless, a systematic approach provides an opportunity to better understand how the enterprise works.

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A systematic approach is a set of some general principles that predetermine the scientific and practical activities. In analysis and synthesis complex systems, which follow from the features of the representation of complex objects.

based on these postulates.

• 1. Any system can be described in terms of system objects, properties, connections.
• 2. The system function structure and problem solution is standard for any system and any problem.

The systems approach includes the following principles:

• - The principle of purpose - focuses on the fact that, first of all, it is necessary to identify the purpose of the system.
• - The principle of integrity - assumes that the object under study is considered or distinguished from the totality of objects, as something whole to the environment, which has its own specific functions and developing according to its own laws.

The principle of complexity - indicates the need to consider an object as a complex set of various elements that are in various relationships between themselves and the environment. Each element has its own complexity, so it is necessary to simplify it to the level that the object retains its essential properties: revealing the simple in the complex, and showing the complex in the simple.

The principle of duality - suggest that the system must be considered as an independent system, and a subsystem of a higher level.

The principle of comprehensiveness - indicates that the object must be studied from all sides.

The principle of multiplicity - states that when studying an object, you need to use a lot of its models.

The similarity principle suggests that you need to use previously obtained results when studying other similar objects.

From an applied point of view, a systematic approach consists in determining the direction and sequence of the study of objects, which is implemented in six stages:

• 1. Clear definition of the purpose of the study
• 2. Accurate and complete definition of the purpose of the functioning of the object from the position of the system of a higher level.
• 3. Isolation and study of the structure of the system and environment (structuring).
• 4. Consistent disclosure of the system functioning mechanism.
• 5. Consideration of the system at all stages of the life cycle (origin, development, functioning and destruction).
• 6. The system is compared with other approximately similar ones in order to find the same properties.

Thus, a systematic approach to the study of complex objects involves research in three interrelated areas.

• - Historical analysis
• - Structural analysis (links and elements)
• - functional analysis (external and internal functioning)

The methodological basis for the preparation and justification of decisions on complex problems (scientific, economic, technical) is a system analysis.

All problems, depending on the depth of complexity, are divided into three classes:

• 1. well structured;
• 2. not structured;
• 3. poorly structured.

Operations research (OR) methodology is used to solve well-structured problems. It consists in applying mathematical models and methods to find the optimal strategy for managing purposeful actions.

In unstructured problems, the heuristic method is traditional, which consists in the fact that an experienced specialist collects a lot of different information about the problem being solved, gets used to it and, based on intuition and judgment, makes suggestions about appropriate measures to solve this problem.

The weakly structured problems that system analysis is designed to solve include most of the most important economic, technical, political, military-strategic tasks of a large scale.

Typical problems are those that:

• 1) are scheduled for future resolution;
• 2) face a wide range of alternatives;
• 3) depend on the current incompleteness of technological advances;
• 4) require large financial investments and contain elements of risk;
• 5) internally complex due to the combination of resources required to solve them;
• 6) for which cost or time requirements are not fully defined.

In systems analysis, problem solving is defined as an activity that maintains or improves the performance of a system. Methods of system analysis are aimed at putting forward alternative solutions to the problem, identifying the extent of uncertainty for each of the options, and comparing options for their effectiveness.

Systems analysis is a methodology for solving large problems based on the concept of systems.

At the same time, system analysis has its own specific purpose, content and purpose.

The purpose of systematic analysis:

The ordering of sequential actions in solving major problems was based on a systematic approach.

Systems analysis is designed to solve a class of problems that are outside the short range of daily activities. The main content of system analysis is not in the formal mathematical apparatus that describes the system and problem solving, and not in special mathematical methods (uncertainty assessment), but in its conceptual, i.e., conceptual apparatus, established goals, ideas.

The main meaning of system analysis:

The main and most valuable result of system analysis is not a quantitatively defined solution to the problem, but an increase in the degree of its understanding and possible solutions among specialists and experts participating in the study of the problem and among responsible persons who are provided with a set of well-assessed and developed alternatives.

The usefulness of new methods of analysis and management is as follows:

• 1) In greater understanding and insight into the essence of the problem: practical efforts to identify relationships and quantitative values ​​will help to discover hidden points of view behind certain decisions;
• 2) More precisely: a clearer formulation of goals and objectives will reduce, although not eliminate, the unclear sides of multifaceted goals;
• 3) More comparability: analysis can be carried out in such a way that plans for one country (region) can be usefully linked or compared with the plans and policies of other regions; while highlighting common elements;
• 4) More useful, more efficient: the development of new methods should lead to a more orderly distribution of money resources, and should help test the value of intuitive judgments