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ondiscipline:

« Psychodiagnostics»

on this topic: "Classification of methods of psychodiagnostics, their advantages and disadvantages"

Introduction.

1. Classification of methods of psychodiagnostics.

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to J. Schwanzare; V.K. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov; A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

Conclusion.

Introduction

Psychology is a very young science. Scientific psychology received official registration a little over 100 years ago, namely in 1879. The emergence of psychology was preceded by the development of two large areas of knowledge: the natural sciences and philosophies; psychology arose at the intersection of these areas, so it has not yet been determined whether psychology should be considered a natural science or a humanitarian one. It follows from the above that none of these answers seem to be correct.

This is the science of the most complex that is known to mankind so far. After all, the psyche is a “property of highly organized matter”. If we mean the human psyche, then the word “most” should be added to the words “highly organized matter”: after all, the human brain is the most highly organized matter known to us. Acquaintance with any science begins with the definition of its subject and a description of the range of phenomena that it studies. What is the subject of psychology? The answer involves considering different points of view on the subject of psychology - as they appeared in the history of science; analysis of the reasons why these points of view changed each other; acquaintance with what ultimately remained of them and what understanding has developed today. The word "psychology" in translation into Russian literally means "the science of the soul" (gr. psyche - "soul" + logos - "concept", "teaching").

PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS is a field of psychological science and at the same time the most important form of psychological practice, which is associated with the development and use of various methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics of a person. The term “diagnostics” itself is derived from well-known Greek roots (“dia” and “gnosis”) and is literally interpreted as “discriminative knowledge”. Psychodiagnostics is not only a direction of practical psychology, but also a theoretical discipline.

1. Classification of methods of psychodiagnostics

The classification of psychodiagnostic methods is designed to make it easier for a practitioner to choose a technique that best suits his task. Therefore, such a classification should reflect the connection of methods, on the one hand, with diagnosed mental properties, on the other hand, with practical problems for the solution of which these methods are developed. The criteria for solving these problems should predetermine the choice of the properties to be diagnosed, and after that, the methods aimed at these properties and best suited to the existing conditions.

Of course, there is no one-to-one correspondence between tasks and methods. The most valuable techniques are universal - they can be successfully applied to solve various problems. In mastering these techniques and in the procedures for their implementation, there are technological features that deserve independent consideration. According to these features, the methods are grouped into an independent operational-technological classification.

Basic methods of research and diagnostics.

One of the most accessible and widely used research methods in social psychology is observation. Observation is a scientifically targeted and in a certain way fixed perception of the object under study. The advantages of observation include: naturalness, independence from the ability of the subjects to evaluate their actions, the ability to assess the long-term consequences of educational influences, etc. The disadvantages are: passivity, the presence of elements of subjectivism, the inaccessibility of this method to some hidden manifestations (experiences, thoughts, motives), etc. .P.

The most typical situations in which the use of observation is effective are the following:

Obtaining information about a mental phenomenon in a “pure” form;

Collection of primary information that does not require a large sample of the objects under study;

Evaluation of facts obtained using other methods (for example, questionnaires);

Another effective research method is experiment. An experiment is an active intervention of a researcher in the life of the subject in order to create conditions under which any socio-psychological fact is revealed. The advantages of the experiment are: the active position of the observer, the possibility of repetition, strictly controlled conditions. The disadvantages include: artificiality of conditions, high costs to control significant factors.

Experiments are natural, laboratory and emerging. The natural experiment is characterized by minor changes in the usual conditions of education and upbringing. With this type of experiment, they try to minimally change the conditions and context in which the psychic phenomenon of interest to the diagnostician occurs. A laboratory experiment is distinguished by a strict standardization of conditions that make it possible to isolate the phenomenon under study as much as possible, to abstract from changing environmental conditions. The formative experiment involves the introduction of research results into pedagogical practice, followed by the study of the changes that arise as a result of such innovations.

Widespread interview. Interrogation is the receipt of information contained in the verbal messages of the subject. There are the following types of survey: questionnaire, interview, conversation. In the process of questioning information is received in the form of written answers of the respondents (respondents). The interview involves obtaining information through the respondents' oral answers to questions asked orally. The method of conversation is based on obtaining information in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of the question of interest to the researcher.

Modeling. This is a research method based on the construction of models of the phenomenon under study. The model is a copy of an object of interest to the researcher, or a phenomenon in some aspect. A model is always a simplification (reduction) of the phenomenon under study. It is intended to highlight the most important (in terms of research objectives) in the object under study. This simplification facilitates the process of qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Testing. Tests provide a systematic enumeration of various symptoms associated with a hypothetical hidden factor. A TEST in psychodiagnostics is a series of standardized brief tests of the same type, which is subjected to the subject - the carrier of the alleged hidden factor. A more rigorous definition: a test is an objective and standardized measurement of a sample of behavior.

Various test tasks are designed to reveal in the subject various symptoms associated with the tested latent factor. The sum of the results of these short tests indicates the level of the measured factor (here, for greater clarity, we mean the simplest scheme for calculating the test score).

Behind the external simplicity of scientific tests lies a lot of research work on their development and testing. Refers to diagnostic methods, which, unlike research methods, are characterized by an emphasis on the measurement (i.e., numerical representation) of a certain psychological variable. The testing procedure can be carried out in the form of a survey, observation or experiment.

A number of special requirements are imposed on tests as methods of accurate psychodiagnostics. It:

1. Socio-cultural adaptation of the test - the correspondence of test tasks and assessments to the characteristics of the culture that has developed in the society where this test is used, being borrowed in another country.

2. Simplicity of wording and unambiguity of test tasks - in verbal and other tasks of the test there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.

3. Limited time for completing test tasks - the total time for completing psychodiagnostic test tasks should not exceed 1.5-2 hours, because beyond this time it is difficult for a person to maintain his working capacity at a sufficiently high level.

4. Availability of test norms for a given test – representative averages for a given test, i.e. indicators representing a large set of people with which you can compare the performance of a given individual, assessing the level of his psychological development.

The test norm is the average level of development of a large population of people similar to a given subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics. To be sure of the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic studies, it is necessary that the psychodiagnostic methods used be scientifically substantiated, i.e., meet a number of requirements. These requirements are

1. Validity - “usefulness”, “fitness”, “correspondence”.

There are several types of validity. Validity is theoretical, empirical, internal, external.

The validity of the methodology is checked and refined in the process of its fairly long-term use.

2. Reliability - characterizes the possibility of obtaining sustainable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways:

By comparing the results obtained by this technique by different people

By comparing the results obtained by the same method under different conditions.

3. The unambiguity of the methodology is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which this methodology is used.

4. Accuracy - reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the evaluated property that occur during the psychodiagnostic experiment. The more accurate the psychodiagnostic technique, the more finely it can be used to evaluate gradations and reveal shades of the measured quality, although in practical psychodiagnostics a very high degree of accuracy of assessments is not always required.

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to J. Schwanzare; VC. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov; A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

Psychodiagnostic methods are combined into groups for various reasons. Here are some of the most common classifications of psychodiagnostic methods.

1. Classification of methods according to J. Schwanzare.

J. Shvantsara combines psychodiagnostic methods into groups for the following reasons:

1. according to the material used (verbal, non-verbal, manipulation, "paper and pencil" tests, etc.);

2. by the number of indicators obtained (simple and complex);

3. tests with the "correct" solution and tests with the possibility of different answers;

4. according to the mental activity of the subjects:

Introspective (subject's report on personal experience, relationships): questionnaires, conversation;

Extrospective (observation and evaluation of various manifestations);

projective. The subject projects unconscious personality traits (internal conflicts, latent inclinations, etc.) onto poorly structured, multi-valued stimuli;

Executive. The subject performs any action (perceptual, mental, motor), the quantitative level and qualitative features of which are an indicator of intellectual and personality traits.

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to V.K. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov.

1. by quality: standardized, non-standardized;

2. by appointment:

general diagnostic (personality tests by the type of questionnaires by R. Cattell or G. Eysenck, tests of general intelligence);

professional suitability tests;

· tests of special abilities (technical, musical, tests for pilots);

achievement tests;

3. according to the material operated by the subject:

blank;

· subject (cubes of Koos, "addition of figures" from Veksler's set);

hardware (devices for studying the features of attention, etc.);

4. by the number of subjects: individual and group;

5. according to the form of the answer: oral and written;

6. By leading orientation: speed tests, power tests, mixed tests. In power tests, the problems are difficult and the solution time is unlimited; the researcher is interested in both success and the method of solving the problem;

7. according to the degree of homogeneity of tasks: homogeneous and heterogeneous (they differ in that in homogeneous tasks they are similar to each other and are used to measure well-defined personal and intellectual properties; in heterogeneous tests, tasks are diverse and are used to assess various characteristics of intelligence);

8. In terms of complexity: isolated tests and test kits (batteries);

9. by the nature of the answers to the tasks: tests with prescribed answers, tests with free answers;

10. by scope of mental: personality tests and intellectual tests;

11. by the nature of mental actions: verbal, non-verbal.

3. Classifications of psychodiagnostic methods according to A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

1. according to the characteristics of the methodological principle that underlies this technique:

Objective tests (in which the correct answer is possible, that is, the correct completion of the task);

standardized self-reports:

Questionnaire tests, open questionnaires

scale techniques (semantic differential of Ch. Osgood), subjective classification

individual-oriented techniques (ideographic) such as role-playing repertoire grids

projective techniques

Dialogic techniques (conversations, interviews, diagnostic games);

2. according to the involvement of the psychodiagnostic himself in the diagnostic procedure and the degree of his influence on the result of psychodiagnostics: objective and dialogic. The former are characterized by a minimum degree of psychodiagnostic involvement in the procedure for conducting, processing and interpreting the result, the latter by a high degree of involvement. The measure of involvement is characterized by the influence of experience, professional skills, the personality of the experimenter and his other characteristics, and the diagnostic procedure itself. Below is a scale on which the entire continuum of psychodiagnostic methods is located from the objective pole to the dialogic pole.

Conclusion

Modern psychological diagnostics is defined as a psychological discipline that develops methods for identifying and studying individual psychological and individual psychophysiological characteristics of a person. Psychodiagnostics also means the area of psychological practice, the work of a psychologist to identify a variety of qualities, mental and psychophysiological characteristics, personality traits.

There are several classifications of psychodiagnostic methods. However, the leading basis for the methodological classification of psychodiagnostic methods is the measure of "objectivity-subjectivity" that its results possess. In the case of objective methods, the influence of the performer (diagnostic psychologist) on the results is minimal. In the case of subjective methods, the results, on the contrary, depend on the experience and intuition of the performer. When carrying out objective and subjective methods, the performer is required to perform completely different technological operations. Therefore, this classification is called "operational".

There is no hard boundary between two classes - objective and subjective methods. Between the extreme options, there are a number of intermediate options for methods that have both certain signs of objectivity and certain signs of subjectivity.

Bibliography:

1. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2003

2. Shevandrin N.I. introduction to the psychodiagnostics of personality Rostov n / a, 1996

3. Abramova G.S. Practical psychology: a textbook for university students - 4th ed., Revised. And additional - Yekaterinburg, 1999

4. General psychodiagnostics / Ed. A.A. Bodaleva, V.V. Stolina. - M. : Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1988. S. 10-13.

5. Workshop on psychodiagnostics: differential psychometrics / Ed. V.V. Stolin, A.G. Shmelev. - M. : Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1984. S. 16-17.

6. Electronic library Gumer.

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There is an urgent need to streamline, if you like, to technologize the diagnostic work of the educational psychologist. To do this, it is necessary to determine the diagnostic situations and conditions for the use of one or another toolkit. It seems to us that the approach presented in this article is quite effective and can be used by psychologists from various educational institutions, primarily school ones.
To do this, it is necessary to once again carefully evaluate the available diagnostic tools, but not only from the standpoint of theoretical psychodiagnostics as a science that “develops the theory, principles and tools for assessing and measuring the individual psychological characteristics of a person” ( S.F. Burlachuk), but from the point of view of the daily practice of an ordinary psychologist.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO GUREVICH

The problem of classifications, typologies, differentiation of certain diagnostic methods and techniques has been repeatedly raised in the literature.
So, K.M. Gurevich et al. (1997) considers two groups of diagnostic tools: methods high level of formalization and methods little formalized .
He refers to the first group tests (which can be divided into several subclasses), questionnaires, projective methods and psychophysiological methods.
The methods of this group are characterized by:
- strict regulation of the examination procedure (strict adherence to instructions, strictly defined methods of presenting stimulus material, non-interference of the researcher in the activities of the subject);
- standardization (presence of norms or other criteria for evaluating results, for example, level criteria);
- Reliability and validity.
Such diagnostic tools make it possible to obtain diagnostic information in a form that makes it possible to quantitatively and qualitatively (in the case of level evaluation criteria) compare an individual or a group of people with other groups of people according to various distinguished parameters. That is, when using high-level formalization techniques, it is necessary to apply statistical norm .
The second group (slightly formalized methods) includes such techniques as observation, surveys, and analysis of activity products.
They are characterized by:
- the absence of any quantitative evaluation standards, that is, the inability to fully apply standardization, the statistical norm;
- extreme variability (variability of the mood of the subjects, motivation in different situations, the state in general), that is, again, a low possibility of objectifying the measurement;
- availability of professional experience, psychological intuition of the researcher.
At the same time, such methods can provide valuable information about mental states and processes that are difficult to standardize, but are of great importance in the study of children.
Separately, K.M. Gurevich highlights methods of clinical diagnostics , built on the basis of the principle of an exclusively qualitative analysis of the features of a mental phenomenon (as opposed to the task of only a quantitative measurement).
Of great importance here is the qualification and experience of a specialist, his ability to put forward and change hypotheses, assumptions, and outline methods of verification. K.M. Gurevich considers this type of diagnostic process as a kind of psychological art, a special "technology" generally focused on "intensive study of an individual case" and not always available to a practical psychologist.
Considering individual methods and tests within the framework of clinical diagnostics, K.M. Gurevich focuses on only one side of this approach - on the individual variant of using the methods of this plan and denies clinical diagnostics the possibility of any comparison of the results, that is, he considers it impossible to typify the data.
In accordance with this approach, the assessment procedure itself, the technology of analysis and the conclusions of a specialist are determined.
It should be immediately noted that when using the clinical approach and, accordingly, clinically oriented psychological methods, one can speak (using the classification criterion of K.M. Gurevich - the level of formalization) about methods medium level of formalization .
For such methods, from our point of view, the following criteria are characteristic:
- The presence of clear requirements for the examination procedure and at the same time the possibility of relative changes depending on the age, condition of the child, that is, a certain variability.
- Possibility of variation and procedure, first of all, depending on the operational capabilities of the child (working capacity, mental tone, tempo characteristics of activity).
- Standardized stimulus material, but at the same time the admissibility of varying the presented stimuli depending on the age, condition of the child or the diagnostic hypothesis of the researcher.
- The absence of standardized age norms in the presence of qualitative or level-qualitative normative performance indicators, which depend primarily on the age of the child.
- The possibility of providing training assistance at various levels - from motivating to detailed, which is taken into account when assessing the quality of assignments.
- Typologically oriented analysis of the results of the survey, excluding a purely quantitative assessment, which, as a rule, does not explain anything for a particular individual. Possibility of multifunctional evaluation of performance results.
- Understanding the consistency and interdependence of results.
In a similar way, the chosen tools provide a much wider range of possibilities for analyzing the results obtained with their help, although they require more qualifications and experience from the psychologist.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO BURLACHUK

There is also a slightly different basis for the classification of diagnostic tools, based on the division of the research method into non-experimental (descriptive) and experimental , with selection within the framework of the last special psychodiagnostic method (Burlachuk, 2002). It is concretized by the author in three main diagnostic approaches (which, in his opinion, exhaust all known diagnostic methods): objective, subjective and projective methods.
The author of the most complete and well-known monograph on psychodiagnostics examines the hierarchical system of organization of diagnostic approaches, methods and tools.
Considering specific methods and techniques for diagnosing manifestations of human individuality, he proposes a traditional division into two types of methods: intelligence tests and methods for diagnosing personal characteristics .
The first are considered as general ability tests (diagnosis of the level of intellectual development), special ability tests (measuring the level of development of certain aspects of the intellect and psychomotor functions that ensure efficiency in specific, narrow areas of activity).
They are adjacent achievement tests (identifying the degree of mastery of certain knowledge, skills), which to some extent can also be considered as an assessment of certain aspects of intelligence.
Personal methods are conventionally divided by the author into action tests (targeted personality tests that involve some kind of perceptual action to detect masked figures) and situational tests (in which the subject is placed in some life situation).
Each of the approaches proposed by the author defines a group of homogeneous, close to each other methods.
Objective Approach , in which diagnostics is carried out on the basis of success, effectiveness and / or method (features) of performing activities, includes:
- intelligence tests;
- tests of special abilities;
- personality tests (objective);
- achievement tests.
Subjective approach as an assessment of information reported about oneself, self-description (self-assessment) of personality traits, condition, behavior in certain situations is based on:
- personal questionnaires;
- mood and state questionnaires;
- questionnaires.
projective method (analysis of the features of interaction with externally neutral, impersonal material, which, due to its indeterminacy, becomes the object of projection) includes:
- motor-expressive techniques;
- perceptual-structural techniques;
- apperceptive-dynamic techniques.

ANOTHER LOOK

There are other classifications of methods and techniques used in psychological diagnostics. For example, the classification given in the textbook edited by L.V. Kuznetsova (2002), which is focused on developmental and special psychology. There research methods are divided into non-instrumental (observation, conversation); non-hardware (instrumental) experimental (game, construction, tests, questionnaires, actions according to the model); hardware experimental (determination of the physical spatio-temporal characteristics of visual, auditory, tactile perception, memory, thinking, motor sphere) (Fundamentals of Special Psychology, 2002).
As can be seen from this short review, most classifications, focusing on the characteristics of the diagnostic process, the diagnostic methods and techniques themselves, do not directly take into account the types and forms. organizations diagnostic activity of a practical psychologist.
It seems to us more important for the practical activity of the psychologist of education to typologize the very organization diagnostic process.
This implies the need to include diagnostic tools in the assessment of the child's mental development, depending on the nature of the diagnostic work of the psychologist, the specific goals and objectives of the examination. Organized in this way typology diagnostic tools does not at all negate, rather complements other classifications within the diagnostic process.
At the same time, the categories and types of diagnostic tools are also determined by the age of the child being examined, the characteristics of his condition (mainly, his operational capabilities), and the diagnostic hypothesis of the psychologist.
From this point of view, we can say that the nature of the diagnostic procedure is determined by the following criteria.
- Form of examination: individual or group diagnostics.
- Type of diagnostic process: screening psychological diagnosis or in-depth.
- Stages of the examination procedure: primary or repeated assessment (the latter can again be subdivided into dynamic and final).
- Evaluation prolongation: monitoring or slice (single).
- The nature of the assessment. In this case, one can speak of expert assessment (differential-level) and .
Each of the listed categories of the diagnostic process is characterized by its own, most effective in each case, technologies, methodological tools, and technologies for analyzing the results.
So, it is quite natural that group examination of children, the possibility of using clinically oriented methods (which we called methods of an average level of formalization) is limited.
In turn, the group form of the survey is possible only for screening diagnostics, which is aimed solely at identifying groups of children with certain characteristics, which allows us to speak of this type of diagnostic process as a expert, differential-level. Such group screening can be monitoring, and slice .
Advanced psychological diagnostics is focused on identifying the specifics of mental development in the broad sense of the word, understanding the mechanisms and causes that led to this type of conditionally normative or deviant development.
An in-depth assessment can only be carried out in individual examination mode. It is characterized, in connection with its main goals and focus, by the limitation of the use of psychometric tests, as well as the inability to combine depth and screening regimen.
In-depth psychological diagnostics can be:
- primary (as a rule, in a situation of an individual examination of a child, the primary assessment is an in-depth psychological diagnosis);
- dynamic , with the help of which the dynamics of development, the effectiveness of training, the dynamics of developing and / or corrective measures are monitored;
- final , the purpose of which is to assess the state of the child "at the exit", at the end of a certain stage of education, a cycle of developmental or corrective work.
Andmonitoring , and slice (single) diagnostics can be both individual and group, screening or in-depth, depending on the goals and objectives set for the specialist.

NATURE OF ASSESSMENT

Separately, one should dwell on the classification of diagnostic procedures according to such a criterion as nature of assessment . It is quite natural that almost any type of psychological diagnostics can be considered as an examination procedure, that is, “examination of any issue by experts to make a conclusion”, “research of any issue that requires special knowledge with the presentation of a reasoned conclusion” ( Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, 1995).
The ultimate goal of any examination is the answer to the question posed by the customer, which is drawn up in the form of an expert opinion. The issues addressed by expert research are determined on the basis of the real needs of educational practice.
As can be seen from these definitions, practically the entire diagnostic component of professional psychological activity can be summed up under the concept of expertise. Such an overly broad interpretation of expert works, of course, does not have sufficient grounds.
At the same time, it makes sense to talk about peer review in the narrow sense of this concept - as one of the categories of the diagnostic procedure. The assessment of the state of the child, the level of his actual development in this case will not have an individual-qualitative character, but only a level or, more precisely, differential-level character.
At the same time, both a “binary” expert assessment (according to the “yes - no” type: whether a child or a group of children has a given feature, sign, functional development or not) and a multi-level assessment (three or four levels) have the right to exist.
In a similar way, for example, a level assessment of the development of children's cognitive activity in the well-known psychodiagnostic complex developed by L.I. Peresleni (1996), where the indicators of the intellectual development of children are "separated" into four levels.
In a situation like this true peer review we can talk about the typology of the state of children mediated by the levels of performance of tasks without determining the qualitative nature inherent in one or another of the identified types. Such a truly expert assessment should also include an assessment of the readiness of children to start schooling.
We have already given our position on this issue in the guidelines (see "School Psychologist", No. 9, 2003). In the case of such an assessment, the question is decided solely on the readiness or unpreparedness of the child for this type of educational institution, but not on the qualitative nature of its development and compliance with the requirements of the first grade program material.
According to the classification of psychodiagnostic situations V.N. Druzhinina (2001), the situation of expert (differential-level) assessment is characterized by a high level of social control over the behavior of the subject, coercion (even if in the form of external motivation of parents to undergo a psychological examination) to participate in the examination and decision-making on further behavior (for example, change educational route) against his will.
It is clear that such an expert assessment can be carried out both in individual , and group form, have screening kind, be slice (one-time) examination or have monitoring (reusable) character.
The goal is differential typological diagnosis is quality assessment of the child's mental development, its regulatory, cognitive and affective-emotional sphere, personal characteristics.
The result of such a complex psychological diagnosis should be a psychological diagnosis, which will allow not only to describe the current state of the child, to attribute him to a certain type of deviant (or conditionally normative) development, but also to provide a reliable forecast of his further development and education.

The tools that modern psychodiagnostics has at their disposal are divided into 2 groups according to their quality: methods of a high level of formalization and methods of low formalization.

Formalized methods include tests, questionnaires, projective technique and psychophysiological methods. They are characterized by strict regulation of the examination procedure (exact observance of instructions, strictly defined methods of presenting stimulus material, non-interference of the researcher in the activities of the subject, etc.), standardization (the presence of norms or other criteria for evaluating results), reliability and validity (for details, see Chap. .III). These techniques allow the collection of diagnostic information in a relatively short time and in a form that makes it possible to quantitatively and qualitatively compare the individual with other people.

Less formalized methods include such techniques as observations, surveys, and analysis of activity products. These methods provide very valuable information about the subject, especially when the subject of study is such mental phenomena that are difficult to objectify (for example, subjective experiences, personal meanings) or are extremely variable (dynamics of goals, states, moods, etc.). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that poorly formalized methods are very laborious (for example, observations of the subject are sometimes carried out for several months) and are largely based on professional experience, the psychological intuition of the psychodiagnostic himself. Only the presence of a high level of culture of conducting psychological observations, conversations helps to avoid the influence of random and side factors on the results of the survey.

Less formalized diagnostic tools should not be opposed to strictly formalized methods. As a rule, they complement each other. In a full-fledged diagnostic examination, a harmonious combination of formalized methods with slightly formalized ones is necessary. Thus, the collection of data using tests should be preceded by a period of familiarization with the subjects in terms of some objective and subjective indicators (for example, with the biographical data of the subjects, their inclinations, motivation, etc.). For this purpose, interviews, surveys, observations can be used.

§ 2. TECHNIQUES OF A HIGH LEVEL OF FORMALIZATION

As mentioned above, they include four main classes of methods: tests (which, in turn, are divided into several subclasses), questionnaires, projective techniques and psychophysiological methods (meaning only those developed in the school of B.M. Teplov).

Usually, in Western manuals, all methods for determining individual psychological differences are called tests, and books on diagnostics are called books on testology. However, in their psychological essence, tests and, for example, questionnaires are very dissimilar to each other. Methods of a projective nature are also a special tool, not similar to any of those listed. Therefore, for a better understanding of what diagnostics gives, they should be separated from each other by name. Psychophysiological methods should take a special place in the classification. These are original diagnostic tools that have arisen in our country.

Tests (translated from English as “test”, “test”, “test”) are standardized short and most often time-limited tests designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences.

Tests can be classified depending on which sign is taken as the basis of division. The following three grounds for classification seem to be the most significant: the form, content, and purpose of psychological testing.

FORM OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

The form of tests can be individual and group; oral and written; blank, subject, hardware and computer; verbal and non-verbal (practical).

Individual and group (collective) tests. Individual tests are a type of technique when the interaction between the experimenter and the subject takes place one on one. These tests have a long history. Psychodiagnostics began with them. Individual testing has its advantages: the ability to observe the subject (his facial expressions, other involuntary reactions), hear and record statements that are not provided for by the instructions, which allows you to assess the attitude towards testing, the functional state of the subject, etc. In addition, the psychologist, based on the level of preparedness of the subject , can replace one test with another during the course of the experiment. Individual diagnostics is necessary when working with children of infancy and preschool age, in clinical psychology - for testing people with somatic or neuropsychiatric disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. It is also necessary in those cases when close contact between the experimenter and the subject is needed in order to optimize his activity. For individual testing, as a rule, a lot of time is needed. It makes high demands on the skill level of the experimenter. In this respect, individual tests are less economical than group tests.

Group tests- this is a type of technique that allows you to simultaneously conduct tests with a very large group of people (up to several hundred people).

One of the main advantages of group tests is the mass nature of the tests. Another advantage is that the instructions and procedure are quite simple, and the experimenter does not require high qualifications. In group testing, the uniformity of the experimental conditions is observed to a large extent. The processing of the results is usually more objective. The results of most group tests can be processed on a computer. Another advantage of group testing is the relative ease and speed of data collection and, as a result, more favorable conditions for comparison with the criterion compared to individual testing. It is not unusual for most modern standardized tests to have normative samples of between 100,000 and 200,000 people, while even the most carefully designed individual tests have difficulty collecting data for 2,000 to 4,000 people when standardized.

However, certain disadvantages of group testing should also be noted. Thus, the experimenter has much less opportunity to reach an understanding with the subject, to interest him and secure his consent to cooperate. Any random conditions of the subject, such as illness, fatigue, restlessness and anxiety, which can affect the performance of tasks, are much more difficult to identify in group testing. In general, persons unfamiliar with such a procedure are more likely to show lower results in group tests than in individual ones. Therefore, in those cases where the decision made on the basis of the test results is important for the subject, it is desirable to supplement the results of group testing either with an individual check of unclear cases, or with information obtained from other sources.

Oral and written tests. These tests differ in the form of the answer. Oral most often are individual tests, written - group. Oral answers in some cases can be formulated by the subject independently ("open" answers), in others - he must choose from several proposed answers and name the one that he considers correct ("closed" answers). In written tests, answers are given to the subjects either in a test book or on a specially designed answer sheet. Written responses may also be "open" or "closed" in nature.

Blank, subject, hardware, computer tests. These tests differ in the material of the operation. Blank tests (another well-known name is Pencil and Paper tests) are presented in the form of notebooks, brochures that contain instructions for use, examples of solutions, the tasks themselves and columns for answers (if young children are being tested). For older teenagers, options are provided when the answers are not entered in test notebooks, but on separate forms. This allows you to use the same test notebooks over and over until they wear out. Blank tests can be used for both individual and group testing.

In subject tests, the material of test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, details of geometric shapes, structures and components of technical devices, etc. The most famous of them are the Koss cubes, the addition test of figures from the Veksler set, the Vygotsky-Sakharov test. Subject tests are mostly conducted individually.

Hardware tests are a type of technique that requires the use of special technical means or special equipment to conduct research or record the data obtained. Widely known devices for studying reaction time (reactors, reflexometers), devices for studying the characteristics of perception, memory, thinking. In recent years, hardware tests have made extensive use of computer devices. With their help, various types of activities (for example, a driver, an operator) are modeled. This is especially important for professional, criterion-oriented diagnostics. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.

Computer tests. This is an automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the subject enters the answers into the computer memory using the keyboard; thus, the protocol is immediately created as a data set (file) on a magnetic medium. Standard statistical packages allow very fast mathematical and statistical processing of the obtained results in different directions. If desired, you can get information in the form of graphs, tables, charts, profiles.

With the help of a computer, the experimenter receives for analysis such data that it is almost impossible to obtain without a computer:

the time to complete the test tasks, the time to get the correct answers, the number of refusals to solve and seek help, the time spent by the subject thinking about the answer when refusing the decision, the time to enter the answer (if it is complex) into the computer, etc. These features of the subjects can be used for in-depth psychological analysis during the testing process.

Verbal and non-verbal tests. These tests differ in the nature of the stimulus material. In verbal tests, the main content of the work of the subjects is operations with concepts, mental actions carried out in a verbal-logical form.

The tasks that make up these methods appeal to memory, imagination, thinking in their mediated speech form. They are very sensitive to differences in linguistic culture, educational level, and professional characteristics. The verbal type of tasks is most common among intelligence tests, achievement tests, and when evaluating special abilities (for example, creative ones).

Non-verbal tests are a type of methodology in which the test material is presented in a visual form (in the form of pictures, drawings, graphics, etc.). They include the speech ability of the subjects only in terms of understanding instructions, while the very performance of these tasks is based on perceptual, psychomotor functions. The most famous non-verbal test is Raven's Progressive Matrices. Non-verbal tests reduce the influence of language and cultural differences on the test result. They also facilitate the examination of subjects with speech, hearing, or low levels of education. Non-verbal tests are widely used in assessing spatial and combinatorial thinking. As separate subtests, they are included in many tests of intelligence, general and special abilities, tests of achievement.

Intelligence tests. Designed to study and measure the level of human intellectual development. They are the most common psychodiagnostic techniques.

Intelligence as an object of measurement does not mean any manifestations of individuality, but primarily those that are related to cognitive processes and functions (thinking, memory, attention, perception). In form, intelligence tests can be group and individual, oral and written, blank, subject and computer.

Ability tests. This is a type of methodology designed to assess the ability of an individual to acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for one or more activities.

It is customary to distinguish between general and special abilities. General abilities provide mastery of many activities. General abilities are identified with intellect, and therefore they are often called general intellectual (mental) abilities.

Unlike general, special abilities are considered in relation to individual types of activity. In accordance with this division, tests of general and special abilities are developed.

In their form, ability tests are of a diverse nature (individual and group, oral and written, blank, subject, instrumental, etc.).

achievement tests, or, as they can be called differently, tests of objective control of success (school, professional, sports) are designed to assess the degree of advancement of abilities, knowledge, skills, abilities after a person has completed training, professional and other training. Thus, achievement tests primarily measure the impact that a relatively standard set of influences has on an individual's development. They are widely used to assess school, educational, and professional achievements. This explains their large number and variety.

School achievement tests are mainly group and blank, but can also be presented in a computer version.

Professional achievement tests usually take three different forms: instrumental (performance or action tests), written, and oral.

Personality tests. These are psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at assessing the emotional and volitional components of mental activity - motivation, interests, emotions, relationships (including interpersonal), as well as the ability of an individual to behave in certain situations. Thus, personality tests diagnose non-intellectual manifestations.

Personal characteristics are measured using three types of methods: tests, questionnaires and projective techniques.

Detailed tests of intelligence, abilities, achievements and personality are discussed in the relevant chapters of the manual.

OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

The correct assessment and interpretation of the results of psychological testing should be based on knowledge of the purpose for which they are used.

The reason that prompted Binet to develop tests in his time was the need to identify mentally retarded children with their subsequent determination in special schools. And to this day, the definition of inferiority remains an important area of application of certain types of psychological tests. However, in this case, testing is carried out only for the purpose of compiling psychological characteristics relating to the specific features of thinking, memory, attention and other mental processes of the child, and the final conclusion about whether he is mentally retarded or just pedagogically neglected is made by defectologists. According to the same scheme, the use of psychodiagnostic data in medicine, in the judiciary (at the request of the court for the preparation of a psychological examination). In all these cases, the test results are intended for representatives of related specialties who use them to make a non-psychological diagnosis (for example, in medicine - to determine the form of the disease) or for one or another decision (administrative, judicial, etc.).

Quite an extensive application of psychological tests is found in the education system, where, based on their results, a psychological diagnosis is made. Distribution of children according to abilities, according to which different types of schooling are applied; identifying the incapable, on the one hand, and the gifted, on the other; identifying the psychological causes of school failure are just some examples of the use of tests in education. In school practice, tests can also be used for the purpose of professional consultations and for selection to certain vocational schools and colleges.

The use of tests in counseling has gradually expanded from narrowly focused advice on educational and professional problems to a deep consideration of aspects of a person's whole life Emotional states and interpersonal relationships are increasingly becoming the object of counseling Psychological testing is increasingly being used as a means of self-knowledge and self-development, behavior correction, etc. Indicators tests become a tool that facilitates the decision-making process for the individual.

Psychological tests are also used to study very different problems, such as age-related changes in human development, the effectiveness of different teaching methods, the impact of psychotherapy, the dependence of performance on noise.

The selection and distribution of personnel in industrial enterprises is another fairly large area of application for tests. Abroad, psychological testing is used when hiring people for work, distributing responsibilities, transferring to a new place, promotion or dismissal. Similarly, psychological testing is used in the selection and deployment of military personnel.

In the works of domestic psychologists, the use of tests as tools for practical work on professional selection and professional consultation is increasingly common. At the same time, the need for

Blank questionnaire drawing and projective psychodiagnostic methods. Therefore, in psychodiagnostics, special psychodiagnostic techniques have become widespread, used not only in the field of counseling and psychotherapy, but also in all those cases when it is necessary to obtain an assessment of one or another mental characteristic of a particular individual or group. These methods have the following features...

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COURSE WORK

BY DISCIPLINE: Psychodiagnostics

TOPIC: Classifications of psychodiagnostic methods

Introduction ………………………………………………….………….…………………3

I. Features of psychodiagnostics ………………..…………………………...……6

1.1. The emergence of psychodiagnostics as a science and the main stages of its development.6

1.2. Tasks of psychodiagnostics .................................................................. .....................................9

II. Methods of psychodiagnostics and their classification……......................…..……... 13

2.1. Operationalization and verification the main requirements for the concepts and methods of psychodiagnostics ...............…………….…. 13

2.2. Blank, questionnaire, drawing and projective psychodiagnostic methods. Essence and frequency of occurrence. The concept of objective-manipulative methods .............................................. ........................................fourteen

2.3. General criteria for the classification of psychodiagnostic methods. The concept of scientific and practical methods ..............................……………….............…….20

2.4. Limitations, advantages and disadvantages of various types of psychodiagnostic methods………………………………………...........…....….23

2.5. Tests and testing ............................................................... ....................................24

Conclusion ................................................................................................................29

Introduction

Recently, psychodiagnostics has become increasingly important in the life of each individual person and society as a whole. It constantly continues to penetrate into new areas of human activity, expanding the baggage of its capabilities, information and methods, thereby becoming on a par with such serious sciences as physics, mathematics, etc.

With the advent of applied human science, primarily ancient philosophy, an urgent need arose to systematize observations. The first works in the field of studying temperament, character and abilities are being created. And in the future, almost all sections of differential psychology are formed under the influence of requests that have arisen in different areas of human activity: identifying children with developmental delays among those entering school in order to create special classes for them, selecting the most suitable candidates for a particular profession, creating individually-oriented methods of psychotherapy.

One of the primary tasks of such studies (and they can be called differential psychological) is to identify the mechanisms for the formation of formal characteristics. For these purposes, various classifications of the formal properties of a person's individuality are being developed. The study of abilities and intelligence occupy one of the central places in differential psychology. The task of measuring human intelligence and general and then special abilities was dictated by the growing demands of practitioners: teachers, educators, clinicians, leaders of large teams who consider intelligence as a characteristic from the side of the subject's capabilities, the ability to manage one's own activity. At the same time, it should be noted that evaluative and meaningful characteristics cannot be applied to intelligence. The intellect cannot be "decent", "moral", "evil" or "good".

Psychodiagnostics is not only a direction in practical psychodiagnostics, but also a theoretical discipline. Psychodiagnostics in a practical sense can be defined as the establishment of a psychodiagnostic diagnosis - a description of the state of objects, which can be an individual, group or organization.

Currently, many psychodiagnostic methods have been created and are being used in practice. At the beginning of the twentieth century. in psychodiagnostics as a science, the requirements for the most developed modern sciences, such as physics, were recognized and accepted. These are operationalization and verification requirements.

Operationalization implies indications of practical actions or operations that any researcher can perform in order to make sure that the phenomenon defined in the concept has exactly the properties that are attributed to it.

Verification i.e., any new concept introduced into scientific circulation and claiming to be scientific, must be tested for its non-emptiness, i.e. for the reality of the existence of the phenomenon defined by this concept.

The emergence of psychodiagnostics as a science and the main stages of its development.

At this time, such methods of psychodiagnostics as observation, questioning, analysis of documents appear. But these methods were of a qualitative nature, therefore, according to the same data, different doctors often made different conclusions.
Only in the second half of the 19th century, when the German psychologist Wundt created the world's first psychodiagnostic laboratory, where technical devices and devices began to be used for the purposes of psychodiagnostics, did psychodiagnostic methods acquire a quantitative character.

Modern methods of psychodiagnostics, concerning the main psychodiagnostic processes, properties and states of a person, began to appear in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. at this time, the theory of probability and mathematical statistics were actively developing, on which the scientific methods of quantitative psychodiagnostics subsequently began to rely.

Psychodiagnostics has become a separate area of scientific and practical psychodiagnostic knowledge. Increasingly wider application in psychodiagnostics is found by modern methods of mathematics and physics, as well as means of electronic psychodiagnostics.

The principle of reflection adequate reflection of the surrounding world provides a person with effective regulation of his activities;
The principle of the dialectical connection between essence and phenomenon makes it possible to see the mutual conditioning of these philosophical categories on the material of psychic reality, provided they are not identical;
The personal principle requires the psychologist to analyze the individual characteristics of a person, take into account his specific life situation, his ontogenesis.

I. Features of psychodiagnostics

1.1. The emergence of psychodiagnostics as a science and the main stages of its development

The history of modern psychodiagnostics begins in the first quarter of the 19th century, i.e. since the beginning of the clinical period in the development of psychodiagnostic knowledge. Doctors psychiatrists began to conduct systematic observations of patients in clinics, recording and analyzing the results of their observations.

Only in the second half of the 19th century, when the German psychologist Wundt created the world's first psychodiagnostic laboratory, where technical devices and devices began to be used for the purposes of psychodiagnostics, did psychodiagnostic methods acquire a quantitative character.

At the same time, the basic (basal) psychophysical law of Weber was discovered.

Conducting experiments to distinguish between weights, line lengths and acoustic pitch heights, Weber found that the ratio of a barely noticeable change in the stimulus dI to its initial value I is a constant value, i.e. dI/I=constant.

According to Weber's law, the differential sensitivity threshold is a certain constant part of the value of the initial stimulus by which it must be increased or decreased in order to obtain a barely noticeable transformation of sensation.

The discovery of Weber's law made it possible to measure psychodiagnostic phenomena. In accordance with this law, human sensations became the main object of measurement, and for a long time practical psychodiagnostics was limited to measuring sensations.

In 1884, the English psychologist Galton founded the Anthropometric Laboratory, one of its goals was to obtain statistical data on human abilities. About 10,000 people went through this experiment. In 1877, he also proposed using the correlation method in psychodiagnostics.

A contemporary of Galton Fisher invented the analysis of variance, and another Englishman Spearman invented factor analysis.

The first statistically valid Binet test appeared in 1905-1907.

In the 1920s, new psychodiagnostic tests began to appear, including intellectual and personality tests, which make it possible to carry out psychodiagnostics of various processes and human properties.

In the 50-60s of the XX century. accounts for the bulk of various psychodiagnostic techniques.

Modern psychodiagnostics has become a separate area of scientific and practical psychodiagnostic knowledge. Increasingly wider application in psychodiagnostics is found by modern methods of mathematics and physics, as well as means of electronic psychodiagnostics.

Psychodiagnostics is carried out on the basis of special methods. It can be an integral part of the experiment or act independently, as a research method or as a field of activity of a practical psychologist, while being directed to the examination, and not to the study.

Psychodiagnostics is understood in two ways:

In a broad sense, it approaches the psychodiagnostic dimension in general and can refer to any object that lends itself to psychodiagnostic analysis, acting as the identification and measurement of its properties;

In a narrow sense, more common measurement of individual psychodiagnostic personality traits.

In a psychodiagnostic examination, 3 main stages can be distinguished:

Data collection.
Data processing and interpretation.
Making a decision psychodiagnostic diagnosis and prognosis.

Psychodiagnostics as a science is defined as a field of psychology that develops methods for identifying and measuring individual psychological characteristics of a person.

As a theoretical discipline, psychodiagnostics deals with variables and constants that characterize the inner world of a person. Psychodiagnostics, on the one hand, is a way to test theoretical constructions, and on the other hand, a concrete embodiment of theoretical constructions a way of moving from an abstract theory, from a generalization to a concrete fact.

Theoretical psychodiagnostics is based on the basic principles of psychology:

The principle of reflection adequate reflection of the surrounding world provides a person with effective regulation of his activities;
The principle of development orients the study of the conditions for the emergence of mental phenomena, the tendencies of their change, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of these changes;
The principle of the dialectical connection between essence and phenomenon makes it possible to see the mutual conditioning of these philosophical categories on the material of psychic reality, provided that they are not identical;
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity consciousness and psyche are formed in human activity, activity is simultaneously regulated by consciousness and psyche;
The personal principle requires the psychologist to analyze the individual characteristics of a person, take into account his specific life situation, his ontogenesis.

These principles form the basis for the development of psychodiagnostic methods - methods for obtaining reliable data on the content of the variables of mental reality.

Practical psychodiagnostics is related to theoretical one in the same way as the engineering operation of technical devices is related to their development and design. Like any operation of fairly complex devices in real, "field" conditions, practical psychodiagnostics involves useful skills, intuition, rich clinical, and everyday experience. In addition, practical psychodiagnostics involves a set of rules for the use of psychodiagnostic tools based on knowledge of the properties of measured variables and measuring tools, on knowledge of the ethical and professional standards of psychodiagnostic work. Thus, a psychodiagnostic practitioner must understand and be able to qualify the conditions for conducting an examination and take them into account when comparing individual data with standards.

For example, if during the survey some elements of the situation alerted the subject and the survey situation turned into an examination situation for him, then this circumstance may make it impossible to compare the individual result with the norms if the latter were obtained in a situation of confidential contact. And vice versa, if the norms are obtained in an examination situation, and a specific examination is of a confidential nature, then the correlation with the norms also becomes incorrect. Not only must he know all this, he must find out how the subject perceives the situation. Practical psychodiagnostics also involves taking into account the client's motivation for the examination and knowing how to maintain it, the ability to assess the condition of the subject as a whole, the knowledge and skills of communicating information to the subject about himself, sensitivity to actions that could involuntarily harm the subject, the ability to interpret the information received, and much more. other.

Tasks of psychodiagnostics

Modern psychology has an impact on the practical activities of people in several different ways. One of these ways is direct psychological assistance to various categories of the population. A psychologist who has received special training is able to provide advisory psychological assistance to parents in raising children, spouses in a situation of family crisis, children whose normal development of their personality is disturbed, boys and girls in choosing a profession, leaders in shaping the style and methods of communication, and many others.

Psychological counseling is based not only on the psychologist's knowledge of the subject of analysis and discussion (family and industrial, intra- and interpersonal conflicts), but also on knowledge of the patterns of the counseling process itself, its strategy and tactics.

Psychological assistance is most often and most effectively provided in a situation of not only objectively existing, but also subjectively experienced distress. This experience can be acute and expressed in deep dissatisfaction with oneself, others, life in general, and sometimes in suffering. In such cases, it is required to provide not only advisory, but also psychotherapeutic assistance. If a person's suffering adds up to a clinical picture of the disease and the person goes to a doctor, then psychotherapeutic assistance is of a medical nature and is provided by a psychotherapist or psychologist under the guidance of a doctor. In many cases, however, psychotherapeutic assistance of a slightly different nature is required. In its form and purpose, this psychotherapeutic intervention coincides with that used in the treatment of patients. It takes the form of a conversation, discussion, game (that is, in the form of communication) and is aimed at relieving a person from suffering and eliminating the causes that caused it.

This intervention, however, differs from medical intervention in two significant respects:

1) the nature of trouble lies not in the painful processes occurring in the human body, but in the characteristics of his personality, the specifics of the life situation and the nature of relationships with others;

2) seeking help and objectively is not, and subjectively does not recognize himself as sick.

In whatever form psychological assistance is provided: in the form of psychological counseling or in the form of non-medical psychotherapy, it has a common characteristic - the individualization of its orientation. This individualization is based on a deep penetration into the person who applied for help, into his feelings, experiences, attitudes, picture of the world, the structure of relationships with others. For such penetration, only psychological intuition and intuition are often not enough; special - psychodiagnostic - methods are required.

In its most general form, psychodiagnostics is the science and practice of making a psychological diagnosis. The term "psychodiagnostics", which spread in psychiatry after the appearance of G. Gorshakh's work "Psychodiagnostics" (Rorschach H. 1921), quickly went beyond medicine. The term "diagnosis" began to be understood as the recognition of any deviation from normal functioning or development, and even as the determination of the state of a particular object (individual, family, small group, one or another mental function or process in a particular person). The concept of psychodiagnostics has extended to the preventive examination of individuals and groups.

Diagnostic research (more precisely, examination) nevertheless has an important characteristic that distinguishes it from scientific research.

Psychodiagnostic problems can be solved in various ways. One of these methods is a long-term observation of the subject, performed in the course of helping him. Another method is the observation of the subject in the real conditions of his life, for example, observing the behavior of a child in kindergarten. These methods provide very valuable information about the subjects, but they are extremely time-consuming, not always available, and provide information not before the start of the work of the psychologist, but already in the course of such work. Therefore, in psychodiagnostics, special psychodiagnostic methods have become widespread, used not only in the field of counseling and psychotherapy, but also in all those cases when it is necessary to obtain an assessment of one or another mental characteristic of a particular individual or group.

These methods have the following features:

1) they allow you to collect diagnostic information in a relatively short time;

2) they provide information not about a person in general, but specifically about certain features (intelligence, anxiety, self-attitude, sense of humor, the most prominent personality traits);

3) the information comes in a form that makes it possible to give a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the individual with other people;

4) the information obtained with the help of psychodiagnostic techniques is useful in terms of choosing the means of intervention, predicting its effectiveness, as well as predicting the development, communication, and effectiveness of an individual's activity.

The principles of the development of psychodiagnostic tools and their specific implementation in diagnostic techniques, including their methodological and theoretical justification, verification of validity and reliability, are included in the subject of general psychodiagnostics.

The development of this field of knowledge in our country proceeded unevenly. The intensive development of psychodiagnostics in the 1920s and early 1930s was then suspended due to the uncontrolled, unprofessional and extensive use of tests. As a result, there was a lag in the development of domestic psychodiagnostics, which began to be intensively overcome in the 70s and 80s. A lot of work in this direction is being carried out by the scientific team of the Leningrad Psychoneurological Institute named after V.M. Bekhterev.

The transformation of psychodiagnostic methods into a reliable tool of science and practice depends on the intensity of the efforts of many researchers, verification and revalidation of the data obtained.

Conventionally, all the tasks that arise in the interaction of a teacher and a psychologist at school can be divided into psychological-pedagogical and psychological. In the first case, the goals and methods for solving the problem are determined by the teacher, and the diagnostic psychologist performs an auxiliary function, namely: he conducts a psychodiagnostics of the student, gives his psychological portrait and predicts the result of pedagogical influence, and in some cases conducts secondary psychological diagnostics after the impact. This type of task in most cases is associated with the maintenance of the educational function of the school. As a rule, the school psychologist himself acts as a psycho-diagnostic and as a subject exercising psychological influence. A request to a psychologist can come from a teacher, from parents, from the student himself. In addition, the psychologist himself can set himself this task. In addition, ethical problems arise before the psychologist, since he must proceed from the humanistic principle of protecting the personality of the child.

II. Methods of psychodiagnostics and their classification

2.1. . Operationalization and verification basic requirements for the concepts and methods of psychodiagnostics

Currently, methods of psychodiagnostics have been created and are being practically used, which cover all the psychological processes, properties and states of a person known to science. Creation, description and scientific recognition of the right to existence of new scientific concepts and phenomena corresponding to them goes hand in hand with the development of psychodiagnostic tools suitable for their experimental study.

Under operationalizationthe requirement is understood that when introducing new scientific concepts, it is imperative to clearly indicate specific procedures, techniques and methods by which you can practically make sure that the phenomenon described in the concept really exists. Operationalization implies an indication of practical actions or operations that any researcher can perform in order to make sure that the phenomenon defined in the concept has exactly the properties that are attributed to it.

Verification requirementmeans that any new concept introduced into scientific circulation and claiming to receive the status of a scientific one must necessarily pass a test for its non-emptiness. The latter presupposes the existence of a technique for experimental diagnostics of the phenomenon described in this concept. The word "verification" literally means "verification". This verification of the non-emptiness of the concept, i.e., the reality of the existence of the phenomenon defined by this concept, must be carried out with the help of an appropriate psychodiagnostic procedure.

If, for example, we introduce the concept of “motive” into scientific circulation, then first it is necessary to give an exact definition of this concept through known other concepts and available methods for diagnosing the phenomena included in the content of this concept (operationalization). Let's assume that such a definition is the following: "Motive is an internal, psychological, conscious or unconscious motivating source of human actions, giving them purposefulness and supporting their activity." (It is assumed that we already know what a “motivating source”, “conscious or unconscious”, and “activity” are, otherwise it would be necessary to supplement the general definition of a motive with particular definitions of these concepts, to carry on this work until not a single term will remain that requires additional clarification.) At the next stage of the operationalization of the concept of “motive”, we would have to offer a psychodiagnostic technique with which one could make sure that what is affirmed in the defining part of this concepts do exist. At the final stage, we would have to carry out a practical verification of the existence of the phenomenon "motive" in all the properties attributed to it in the definition. Thus, both operationalization and verification of concepts require an appeal to psychodiagnostics, but only operationalization presupposes a theoretical, while verification is a practical step along this path.

2.2. Blank, questionnaire, drawing and projective psychodiagnostic methods. Essence and frequency of occurrence. The concept of objective manipulation techniques

Most of the created and applied practical psychodiagnostic methods represent the so-calledblank methodsthose in which the subject is offered a series of judgments or questions to which he must answer orally or in writing. According to the answers received by the subject, in turn, they judge the psychology of the person who offered these answers. The widespread and practical interest in blank methods is explained by the fact that they are relatively simple both to develop and to use and process the results obtained.

The second place in terms of frequency of occurrence is occupied bysurvey methods, in the process of applying which the researcher of human psychology asks the subject oral questions, notes and processes his answers. These techniques are good because they do not require the preparation of special forms and allow the psychodiagnostic to behave in relation to the subject quite flexibly. The disadvantage of survey methods is subjectivity, which is manifested both in the choice of the questions themselves and in the interpretation of the answers to them. In addition, survey methods are difficult to standardize and, therefore, to achieve high reliability and comparability of the results obtained.

The third place in terms of frequency of use is occupied bydrawing psychodiagnostic techniques. In them, to study the psychology and behavior of the subjects, the drawings created by them are used, which can be either thematically specified or spontaneous. Sometimes the method of interpretation by the subjects of standard, ready-made images is used. Often, the content of these images presents in a visual form the tasks that the subject must solve.

The first and third of the described types of psychodiagnostic methods can have two options: manual and computer . With the manual version, the technique is used from beginning to end without the use of electronic computers for the presentation or processing of experimental material. In the computer version, at one of the indicated stages of psychodiagnostics, electronic computers are used. For example, textual and pictorial material can be presented to the subjects through the display screen, and the machine's processor can be used to perform quantitative calculations, as well as print out the results.

A special place among psychodiagnostic methods is occupied by projective , which, in turn, can be blank, questionnaire and pictorial. The frequency of their practical use is also quite high and increases from year to year for the reason that the methods of this group are the most valid and informative.

The next group of techniquesobjectively manipulative. In them, the tasks solved by the subjects are offered to them in the form of real objects with which they have to do something: assemble from given materials, manufacture, disassemble, etc.

Based on the presented attempt to divide psychodiagnostic methods into groups, we will try to offer a more detailed classification of them, first highlighting general criteria, according to which further psychodiagnostic methods will be divided into private groups. These criteria are as follows:

The type of test tasks used in the methodology.
The destination of the test material used in the methodology.
The form of presentation of the test material to the subjects.
The nature of the data used to draw conclusions about the results of psychodiagnostics.
The presence of test norms in the methodology.
The internal structure of the technique.

According to the type of test tasks used, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into questionnaire (they use questions addressed to the subjects), assertive (they use some judgments or statements with which the subject must express his agreement or disagreement), productive (here one or another type of self-reflection is used). creative products of the subject: verbal, figurative, material, spontaneously created or reproduced according to the instructions by the subjects themselves), effective (the subject receives the task to perform a certain set of practical actions, the nature of which is used to judge his psychology), physiological (in this case, psychodiagnostics is based on analysis non-voluntary physical or physiological reactions of the human body).

According to the addressee of the test material, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into conscious, appealing to the consciousness of the subject, and unconscious, aimed at unconscious human reactions. Questionnaires can serve as an example of methods of the first type, and projective methods can serve as an example of the second.

According to the form of presentation of the test material to the test subjects, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into blank (they are test material in written or some other sign form: drawing, diagram, etc.), technical (the test material is presented to the test subject in audio, video or film form , as well as through other technical devices and machines), sensory (represent the material in the form of physical stimuli directly addressed to the senses).

By the nature of the data used for psychodiagnostic conclusions, the methods are divided into objective (indicators are used that do not depend on the consciousness and desire of the subject or experimenter) and subjective (data are used that depend on the desire and consciousness of the experimenter or subject, related to their inner experience and dependent on it). An example of methods of an objective type can be tests that include an analysis of physiological, reflexive indicators or practical results of the subject's activity, when using which subjectivism in assessments is minimized. On the other hand, a classic example of a subjective type of methodology is one that relies mainly on introspection and inferences drawn from intuition and inner experience.

According to the criterion of the presence of test norms, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into those that have similar norms and those that do not have them.

Finally, according to the internal structure, psychodiagnostic methods can be divided into monomeric and multidimensional ones. The former are characterized by the fact that they diagnose and evaluate a single quality or property, and the latter by the fact that they are intended for psychodiagnostics and evaluation of several similar or heterogeneous psychological qualities of a person at once.

One and the same psychodiagnostic technique can simultaneously be considered and qualified from different angles, according to different criteria. Therefore, almost any technique can be attributed not to one, but to several classification groups at once. In this regard, the criteria for the classification of psychodiagnostic methods identified and described above should be regarded not as mutually exclusive, but as complementary to each other in characterizing different methods, as possible aspects of their analysis and division into classes.

Psychodiagnostic techniques based on a qualitative and quantitative analysis of experimental data are allocated to a separate group. In the first case, the diagnosed property is described in terms of known scientific concepts, and in the second case, through the relative degree of its development in a given person compared to other people. Sometimes quantitative and qualitative characteristics are combined within the same methodology, so that in the end the property under study receives a double, quantitative-qualitative characteristic.

All methods of psychodiagnostics can also be divided into scientific and practical, although such a division is conditional: most of the known psychodiagnostic methods are used both in practical psychodiagnostics and in research experimentation. However, there is still a difference between them, which lies in the fact that research methods are mainly focused on the identification and subsequent study of one or another psychological quality for the purpose of its purely scientific knowledge, and practical on assessing the degree of its development and use in practical purposes. In addition, a scientific technique can be unique, time-consuming, expensive and can be used only within the framework of scientific research, being, due to its indicated qualities, not suitable for broad practical psychodiagnostics. A practical technique, on the contrary, should be universal, simple and relatively cheap.

The existence of many psychodiagnostic methods is explained not only by the large number of properties that have to be evaluated with their help, but also by the fact that almost all methods have limitations in application, due to which it is necessary to create and use other methods that do not have such limitations. In this regard, let us consider the advantages and disadvantages of some types of methods. The advantage of methods that address consciousness is that they allow one to judge the psychology of a given person directly on the basis of what he says about himself or the people around him. However, the subject may not respond sincerely enough or not critically to questions addressed to him, including under the influence of a subjectively perceived instruction, a biased attitude towards a psychodiagnostician, or a situation of psychodiagnostics. In a word, conscious subjective distortion of test results is one of the most serious shortcomings of this group of methods. True, some special techniques used by the designers of such methods, in particular the introduction of control questions into its structure, judgments that specifically assess the degree of sincerity of the respondent, can significantly reduce the level of subjectivity of the results obtained. At the same time, we note once again: it is practically impossible to completely avoid this drawback in this type of methods, which makes them not always a valid, reliable and unambiguous measuring tool.

The advantage of objective methods based not on verbal responses, self-characteristics or self-assessments, but on involuntary actions and reactions that do not depend on the person’s consciousness, as well as the products of his activity, is that they allow you to avoid subjectivity, and in this regard are quite reliable. At the same time, their validity and unambiguity, as well as their accuracy, sometimes leave much to be desired. Let's explain what has been said. Objective indicators do not always reflect with their changes precisely those psychological properties for which they are intended to assess. For example, physiological reactions do not always correspond to the psychological properties and states of a person. In addition, they are associated with momentary physical states of the body, and not only psychological processes, and in this sense are not entirely unambiguous. Finally, for indicators of this kind, it is difficult to develop a fine measuring scale that would allow one to identify various degrees of manifestation of the diagnosed quality and evaluate them differently. In other words, objective indicators are not accurate measures of the strength of the property reflected in them. Let us assume that in order to draw conclusions about the presence of a certain relation in the child to the members of his family, the features of the drawing of the family made by the child himself are used. Such a drawing, as shown in numerous studies, can indeed reflect the relationships that have developed in the family, but, in addition, also the artistic and visual abilities of the child, his desire to draw, the desire to please the psychologist, the mood at the time of testing, and much more. Depending on all this, the nature of the drawing may change, including those signs by which the child’s relationship to individual family members is usually judged.

Projective methods, in comparison with all those already considered, have one very significant advantage: they are, as a rule, valid and relatively reliable with a high level of professional training of the user. They are less subjective and less susceptible to random, situational influences. Their disadvantage is the complexity and significant time costs required to obtain the desired psychodiagnostic result.

Techniques that allow obtaining quantitative data reflecting the degree of development of the studied property make it possible to use measures and methods for quantitative processing of the results of psychodiagnostics. At the same time, using such methods, it is impossible to distinguish qualitatively different psychological properties from each other, which have the same quantitative indicators. Two people with the same strength of motives for achieving success can differ significantly from each other in that they strive for success in completely different areas of human activity: one in business, the other in art, the third in sports, etc.

On the other hand, methods that rely only on a qualitative analysis of experimental data do not allow the use of quantitative methods for processing the results, judging the level of development of the relevant properties, and directly proving the cause-and-effect relationships between the variables under study.

General criteria for the classification of psychodiagnostic methods. The concept of scientific and practical methods

A more detailed classification of psychodiagnostic methods can be proposed only by highlighting the general criteria, according to which the various methods of psychodiagnostics will be divided into private groups. These criteria are as follows:

1) the type of test tasks used in the methodology;

2) the addressee of the test material used in the methodology;

3) the form of presentation of the test material by the subjects;

4) the nature of the data used to draw conclusions about the results of psychodiagnostics;

5) the presence of test norms in the methodology.

6) the internal structure of the methodology.

According to the type of test tasks used, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into questionnaires (they use questions addressed to the subjects), approvers (they use some judgments or statements with which the subject must express his agreement or disagreement), productive (here one or another type of the subject's own creative output is used: verbal, figurative, material, spontaneously created or reproduced according to the instructions by the subjects themselves), effective (the subject receives the task to perform a certain set of practical actions, by the nature of which his psychology is judged),physiological(in this case, psychodiagnostics is based on the analysis of involuntary physical or physiological reactions of the human body).

For example, to assess the psychology of a person, you can use his answers to direct or indirect questions, his agreement or disagreement with certain judgments, the results of his oral, written, visual, technical or other activities, his arbitrary and involuntary actions and reactions in response for some incentives and more. The electroencephalogram, electrocardiogram, electromyogram, galvanic skin response (GSR) and other reflexes, including cardiovascular reflexes and reflexes of the respiratory system, can also serve the same purpose.

According to the addressee of the test material, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into conscious , appealing to the consciousness of the subject, andunconsciousaimed at unconscious human reactions. Questionnaires can serve as an example of methods of the first type, and projective methods can serve as an example of the second.

According to the form of presentation of the test material to the subjects, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into blank (represent test material in written or any other sign form: in the form of a drawing, diagram, etc.), technical (they present the test material to the subject in audio, video or film form, as well as through other technical devices and machines), sensory (represent the material in the form of physical stimuli directly addressed to the senses).

According to the nature of the data used for psychodiagnostic conclusions, the methods are divided into objective (indicators are used that do not depend on the consciousness and desire of the subject or experimenter) and subjective (data are used that depend on the desire and consciousness of the experimenter or subject, related to their inner experience and depending on it). An example of methods of an objective type can be tests that include an analysis of physiological, reflexive indicators or practical results of the subject's activity, when using which subjectivity in assessments is minimized. On the other hand, the classic example of a subjective type of methodology is one that relies heavily on introspection and inferences drawn from intuition and inner experience.

According to the criterion of the presence of test norms, psychodiagnostic methods are divided intohaving similar standards and not having them.

Finally, according to the internal structure, psychodiagnostic methods can be divided into monomeric and multidimensional . The former are characterized by the fact that they diagnose and evaluate a single quality or property, and the latter by the fact that they are intended for psychodiagnostics and evaluation of several similar or heterogeneous psychological qualities of a person at once. In the latter case, the psychodiagnostic technique is subdivided, as a rule, into several particular techniques - subscales that evaluate individual psychological qualities. For example, the well-known Spielberger Khanin test for assessing anxiety is a monomeric technique, and the Cattell personality test is a multidimensional technique.

Psychodiagnostic methods based on qualitative and quantitative analysis of experimental data. In the first case, the diagnosed property is described in terms of known scientific concepts, and in the second case, through the relative degree of its development in a given person compared to other people. Sometimes quantitative and qualitative characteristics are combined within the framework of the same methodology, so that in the end the property under study receives a double quantitative-qualitative characteristic. For example, in the Lichko test, designed to diagnose character accentuations in adolescents, each of the studied character traits has a double characteristic - both quantitative and qualitative at the same time.

All methods of psychodiagnostics can also be divided into scientific and practical , although such a division is conditional: most of the known psychodiagnostic methods are used both in practical psychodiagnostics and in research experimentation. However, there is still a difference between them, which lies in the fact that research methods are mainly focused on the identification and subsequent study of one or another psychological quality for the purpose of its purely scientific knowledge, and practical on assessing the degree of its development and use in practical purposes. In addition, a scientific method can be unique, time-consuming, expensive and can be used only within the framework of scientific research, being unsuitable for broad practical psychodiagnostics due to its indicated qualities. A practical technique, on the contrary, should be universal, simple and relatively cheap.

Limitations, advantages and disadvantages of various types of psychodiagnostic methods

Consider in this regard advantages and disadvantages some types of methods. The advantage of methods that address consciousness is that they allow one to judge the psychology of a given person directly on the basis of what he says about himself or the people around him. However, the subject may not respond sincerely enough or not critically to questions addressed to him, including under the influence of a subjectively perceived instruction, a biased attitude towards a psychodiagnostician, or a situation of psychodiagnostics. In a word, conscious subjective distortion of test results is one of the most serious shortcomings of this group of methods. True, some special techniques used by the designers of such methods, in particular the introduction of control questions into its structure, judgments that specifically assess the degree of sincerity of the respondent, can significantly reduce the level of subjectivity of the results obtained. At the same time, we note once again: it is practically impossible to completely avoid this drawback in this type of methods, which makes them not always a valid, reliable and unambiguous measuring tool.

The advantage of objective methods based not on verbal responses, self-characteristics or self-assessments, but on involuntary actions and reactions that do not depend on the consciousness of a person, as well as the products of his activity, is that they allow you to avoid subjectivity and, in this regard, are quite reliable. However, their validity and unambiguity, as well as accuracy, sometimes leave much to be desired. Let's explain what has been said. Objective indicators do not always reflect with their changes precisely those psychological properties for which they are intended to evaluate. For example, physiological reactions do not always correspond to the psychological properties and states of a person. In addition, they are connected with momentary physical states of the organism, and not only with psychological processes, and in this sense they are not completely unambiguous. Finally, for indicators of this kind, it is difficult to develop a fine measuring scale that would allow one to identify various degrees of manifestation of the diagnosed quality and evaluate them differently. In other words, objective indicators are not accurate measures of the strength of the property reflected in them. Let us assume that in order to draw conclusions about whether a child has a certain attitude towards members of his family, the features of a drawing of a family made by the child himself are used. Such a drawing, as shown in numerous studies, can indeed reflect the relationships that have developed in the family, but, in addition, also the artistic and visual abilities of the child, his desire to draw, the desire to please the psychologist, the mood at the time of testing, and much more. Depending on all this, the nature of the drawing may change, including those signs by which the child’s relationship to individual family members is usually judged.

2.5. Tests and testing

Tests are standardized methods of psychodiagnostics that allow obtaining comparable quantitative and qualitative indicators of the degree of development of the studied properties.

Standardization of the methodology i.e. it should be applied always and everywhere in the same way, from the beginning of the situation to the way the results are interpreted.

Comparability i.e. the scores obtained using the test can be compared with each other regardless of where, when and by whom they were obtained.

Practical test tasks tasks and exercises that the test subject must perform, practically manipulating real objects or their substitutes.

The figurative tasks of the exercise with images, pictures, drawings, diagrams, and representations involve the active use of the imagination.

Verbal tests of the task for operating with words definition of concepts, conclusions, comparison of the volume and content of decomp. words, etc.

According to the nature of the test material presented to the test subjects, the test material is used in the form of blanks: drawings, diagrams, tables, questionnaires, etc.

Hardware with the use of various equipment for the presentation and processing of test results audio and TV equipment, computers.

According to the object of assessment, procedural ones examine any psychological or behavioral process, for example. the process of memorization, the process of interpersonal interaction in a group.

Achievement tests evaluate a person's success in various activities, or areas of knowledge - memory productivity, logical thinking, attention span, etc.

Tests of states and properties diagnostics of more or less stable psychological qualities of a person personality traits, temperament properties, abilities, etc.

Projective tests are based on an indirect assessment of the psychological qualities of a person. Evaluation the result of the analysis of the perception and interpretation of a person of some multi-link objects, for example. shapeless spots, unfinished sentences, etc.

A number of special requirements are imposed on tests as methods of accurate psychodiagnostics.

Socio-cultural adaptation of the test compliance of test tasks and assessments with the characteristics of the culture that has developed in the society where this test is used, being borrowed in another country.

Simplicity of wording and unambiguity of test tasks in verbal and other tasks of the test there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.

Limited time for completing test tasks The total time for completing psychodiagnostic test tasks should not exceed 1.5-2 hours, because beyond this time it is difficult for a person to maintain his working capacity at a sufficiently high level.

The presence of test norms for a given test are representative averages for a given test, i.e., indicators representing a large set of people with whom one can compare the performance of a given individual, assessing the level of his psychological development.

Test norm the average level of development of a large population of people similar to a given subject in a number of social demographic characteristics.

Special requirements for psychodiagnostic methods

To be sure of the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic studies, it is necessary that the psychodiagnostic methods used be scientifically substantiated, i.e., meet a number of requirements.

These requirements are:

Validity “usefulness”, “suitability”, “correspondence”. There are several types of validity.
Theoretical validity is determined by the correspondence of the indicators of the quality under study, obtained using this method, to the indicators obtained using other methods. Theoretical validity is checked by correlations of indicators of the same property, obtained using various methods based on or proceeding from the same theory.
Empirical validity is checked by the correspondence of diagnostic indicators to the actual behavior, observed actions and reactions of the subject. According to the criterion of empirical validity, the methodology is checked by comparing its indicators with the real life behavior of people.
Validity internal - means the compliance of the tasks, subtests, judgments, etc. contained in the methodology with the general goal and design of the methodology as a whole. It is considered internally invalid when all or part of the questions, tasks or subtests do not measure what is required from this methodology.
External validity is approximately the same as empirical validity, but here we are talking about the relationship between the indicators of the methodology and the most important external features related to the behavior of the subject.
The validity of the methodology is checked and refined in the process of its fairly long-term use.

Validity Criteria:

Behavioral indicators reactions, actions and deeds of the subject in different life situations.
1. Achievements of the subject in various activities: educational, labor, creative, etc.
2. Data on the performance of various control samples and tasks.
3. Data obtained from other methods, the validity of which or the relationship with this method is considered to be reliably established.

Reliability characterizes the possibility of obtaining sustainable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways:

by comparing the results obtained by this technique by different people
1. by comparing the results obtained by the same method under different conditions.

The unambiguity of the technique is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which the given technique is applied.

Accuracy reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the evaluated property that occur during the psychodiagnostic experiment. The more accurate the psychodiagnostic technique, the more finely it can be used to evaluate gradations and reveal shades of the measured quality, although in practical psychodiagnostics a very high degree of accuracy of assessments is not always required.

Rules for testing, processing and interpreting results

There are certain strict rules in this matter.

The most important ones are:

Projective methods, in comparison with all those already considered, have one very significant advantage: they are, as a rule, valid and relatively reliable with a high level of professional training of the user. They are less subjective and less susceptible to random, situational influences. Their disadvantages are the complexity and significant time costs required to obtain the desired psychodiagnostic result.

Conclusion

So, psychodiagnostics is a rather complex area of professional activity of a psychologist, requiring special training. The totality of all knowledge, skills and abilities that a psychologist diagnostician should possess is so wide, and the knowledge, skills and abilities themselves are so complex that psychodiagnostics is considered as a special specialization in the work of a professional psychologist. Not a single specialist, a psychologist of any profile, can do without psychodiagnostics, if he deals not only with theory.

In this regard, in his work, a psychodiagnostician must strictly adhere to and clearly observe a number of the above strict requirements for the methods of psychodiagnostics used by him. Since due to errors in psychodiagnostics, most often associated with a lack of professionalism, the results of both experimental and advisory psychocorrective work are nullified.

The emergence of a projective approach to personality diagnostics is an important stage in the development of psychodiagnostics, since methods appear that are qualitatively different from traditional ones. Projective techniques are techniques based on the phenomenon of projection. They are designed to study those deep individual characteristics of a person that are least accessible to direct observation or questioning. The specificity of the projective method lies in its focus on identifying, first of all, subjective-conflict relations and their representation in the individual consciousness in the form of "personal meanings" or "significant experiences".

The most important distinguishing feature of projective techniques is that they use vague or semi-structured stimuli that create the most optimal conditions for the manifestation of a person's inner world. However, the studies focused on the analysis of the role of the stimulus in the projective technique show that it is a mistake to assume that each reaction of the subject is personally conditioned, since the objective parameters of the stimuli are directly involved in the formation of responses. Despite this, in the modern world there is a growing interest in projective methods as one of the most important psychological tools for cognition of a person.

Before applying the test, the psychologist needs to try it on himself or another person, which will avoid possible errors due to insufficient knowledge of its nuances.

It is important to make sure that the test subjects understand the tasks and instructions for the test well before starting work.

During testing, all subjects must work independently, without influencing each other.

For each test, there should be a reasonable and verified procedure for processing and interpreting the results. This avoids errors that occur at this stage of testing.

The variety of types of human activity determines a diverse range of methods that can be classified according to a variety of grounds (criteria). First of all, it is necessary to single out the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of material (practical) activity.

At present, it has become obvious that the system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond it and certainly include the sphere of practice in its orbit. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the close interaction of these two spheres of human activity. As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for their division into groups. So, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can single out formal and substantive methods, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied, methods of research and presentation, etc.

The relevance is due to the use of a system of private methods and techniques in psychological research. Science is, first of all, research. Therefore, the characterization of science is not limited to the definition of its subject matter; it includes the definition of its method. Methods, i.e., ways of knowing, are the ways by which the subject of science is known. Psychology, like every science, uses not one, but a whole system of particular methods, or techniques. Under the method of science in the singular one can understand the system of its methods in their unity. The basic methods of science are not operations external to its content, not formal methods introduced from outside. Serving the disclosure of regularities, they themselves rely on the basic regularities of the subject of science; therefore, the method of the psychology of consciousness was different from the method of psychology as a science of the soul: it is not for nothing that the first is usually called empirical psychology, and the second rational, thus characterizing the subject of science according to the method by which it is known; and the method of behavioral psychology is different from that of the psychology of consciousness, which is often called introspective psychology after its method. Whether the researcher is aware of this or not, his scientific work objectively in its methodology always implements this or that methodology. For a consistent and fruitful implementation in psychology of our methodology, it is very important that it be conscious and, being conscious, not turn into a form mechanically imposed on the concrete content of science from the outside, so that it reveals itself within the content of science in the laws of its own development.

The study of man is one of the most important tasks of science, and among the sciences of man, psychology occupies one of the first places. A psychological test helps to understand your mental life. It gives you the opportunity to understand yourself, to know your strengths and weaknesses. And to know oneself is necessary for self-education, for working on oneself, on correcting one's shortcomings, on developing one's abilities.

To date, the tests are very diverse and there are many reasons for their classification. These are tests of intelligence, achievements, special abilities, creativity, interpersonal, practical, test and figurative tasks, verbal tests, which include tasks for operating with words, as well as many blank, instrumental, procedural, tests of states and properties, and a special group projective tests.

List of used literature

Anastasi, A., Urbina, S. Psychological testing / Per. from English. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 688s.
Burlachuk, L.F. Introduction to projective psychology. Kyiv: Vist-S, 1997. 128p.
Burlachuk, L.F., Morozov, S.M. Dictionary-reference book on psychodiagnostics St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 1999. 528 p.
Burlachuk, L.F. Psychodiagnostics. Textbook for universities / Burlachuk Leonid Fokich. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 351s.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: In 3 books. Book. 3: Psychodiagnostics. M.: VLADOS, 1998.-632 p.
Know yourself and others: Popular tests. - 4th ed., add. - M .: IVTs Marketing, 2000 - 400s.
Projective psychology: Per. from English. M.: April-Press, EKSMO-Press, 2000. 318s.
Psychological diagnostics: a textbook for university students / ed. M.K. Akimova, K.M. Gurevich. -3rd ed., revised. and additional .. -SPb. [and others]: Peter, 2003. -650s.
Sokolova, E.T. Projective methods of personality research. M.: MSU, 1980. - 150p.
Shapar, V.B., Shapar, O.V. Practical psychology. Projective methods. / V.B. Shapar, O.V. Chapar. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2006. 480 p.

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Theoretical psychodiagnostics is based on the basic principles of psychology:

The principle of reflection - an adequate reflection of the surrounding world provides a person with effective regulation of his activities;

The principle of development - orients the study of the conditions for the occurrence of mental phenomena, the trend of their change, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of these changes;

The principle of the dialectical connection of essence and phenomenon - allows you to see the mutual conditioning of these philosophical categories on the material of mental reality, provided they are not identical;

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity - consciousness and psyche are formed in human activity, activity is simultaneously regulated by consciousness and psyche;

The personal principle requires the psychologist to analyze the individual characteristics of a person, take into account his specific life situation, his ontogenesis.

These principles form the basis for the development of psychodiagnostic methods - methods for obtaining reliable data on the content of the variables of mental reality. Modern psychodiagnostics has become a separate area of scientific and practical psychodiagnostic knowledge.

2. Basic methods of psychodiagnostics and their classification

At the present time, many psychodiagnostic methods have been created and are being practically used. At the beginning of the twentieth century. in psychodiagnostics as a science, the requirements for the most developed modern sciences were recognized and accepted, for example. physics. These are operationalization and verification requirements.

Operationalization - implies indications of practical actions or operations that any researcher can perform in order to make sure that the phenomenon defined in the concept has exactly the properties that are attributed to it.

Verification - that is, any new concept introduced into scientific circulation and claiming to be scientific, must be tested for its non-emptiness, that is, for the reality of the existence of the phenomenon defined by this concept.

The most general classification scheme for psychodiagnostic methods can be represented as the following scheme:

Table 1

Classification of psychodiagnostic methods

There are also other methods of psychological and pedagogical research, such as ranking, rating, and the graph method.

3. Brief characteristics

psychodiagnostic methods.

1. Blank methods- make up the majority of them. In them, the subject is offered a series of judgments or questions. According to the answers received, the psychology of the subject is judged.

These techniques are easy to develop, use and process the results.

2. Survey Methods- rank second in terms of frequency of use. In them, the subject is asked oral questions, notes and processes his answers.

Flaws:

subjectivity, which is manifested both in the choice of the questions themselves and in the interpretation of the answers to them;

These methods are difficult to standardize and, consequently, to achieve high reliability and comparability of results.

3. Drawing psychodiagnostic techniques- use the drawings created by the subject, which may be thematic or spontaneous. Sometimes the method of interpretation of the finished images by the subject is used.

4. Projective Methods- in turn, they can be blank, questionnaire, pictorial. They are used more and more often, since the methods of this group are the most valid and informative.

5. Objectively– manipulation techniques- in which the tasks solved by the subjects are offered to them in the form of real objects with which something has to be done - to assemble, manufacture, disassemble, etc.

A more detailed classification of psychodiagnostic methods

can be represented by highlighting other criteria (see Table 2)

table 2

Classification of psychodiagnostic methods

III. Psychodiagnostics of the educational system.

III. Design of typical diagnostic procedures.

1. Tests and testing

Tests- standardized methods of psychodiagnostics, allowing to obtain comparable quantitative and qualitative indicators of the degree of development of the studied properties.

Standardization of the methodology - that is, it should be applied always and everywhere in the same way, from the beginning of the situation to the way the results are interpreted.

Comparability - that is, the scores obtained using the test can be compared with each other regardless of where, when and by whom they were received.

The classification of test types is given in Table. 3.

2. Requirements for tests

A number of special requirements are imposed on tests as methods of accurate psychodiagnostics. It:

2. Simplicity of wording and unambiguity of test tasks - in verbal and other tasks of the test there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.

4. The presence of test norms for a given test - representative averages for a given test, i.e. indicators representing a large set of people with whom you can compare the performance of a given individual, assessing the level of his psychological development.

Test norm - the average level of development of a large population of people similar to a given subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics.

Brief characteristics of psychodiagnostic methods

Blank methods - make up the majority of them. In them, the subject is offered a series of judgments or questions. According to the answers received, the psychology of the subject is judged.

These techniques are easy to develop, use and process the results.

Survey methods - take the second place in terms of frequency of use. In them, the subject is asked oral questions, notes and processes his answers.

Flaws:

subjectivity, which is manifested both in the choice of the questions themselves and in the interpretation of the answers to them;

these techniques are difficult to standardize and, consequently, to achieve high reliability and comparability of results.

Drawing psychodiagnostic techniques - use drawings created by the subject, which can be thematic or spontaneous. Sometimes the method of interpretation of the finished images by the subject is used.

Projective methods - in turn, can be blank, questionnaire, drawing. They are used more and more often, since the methods of this group are the most valid and informative.

Objective-manipulation techniques - in which the tasks solved by the subjects are offered to them in the form of real objects with which something has to be done - to assemble, manufacture, disassemble, etc.

A more detailed classification of psychodiagnostic methods can be presented by highlighting other criteria (see Table 1)

Table 1. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods

Criterion	Method name	a brief description of
By the type of test tasks used	Questionnaires	Questions addressed to the examinees are used
	approvers	Judgments or statements are used with which the subject must agree or disagree
	Productive	Apply your own creativity. products of the subjects - verbal, figurative, material
	Effective	Task to perform a certain set of practical actions
	Physiological	P / diagnostics based on the analysis of involuntary physical or physiological r-tions of the body
By destination of the test material used	conscious	Appeal to the consciousness of the subject
By destination of the test material used	unconscious	Aimed at unconscious human reactions
According to the form of presentation of the test material to the subjects	blank	Test material in written or other sign form (drawing, diagram, etc.)
	technical	Test material in audio, video or film format, or other technical devices
	sensory	Test material in the form of physical stimuli directly addressed to the senses
By the nature of the data used to draw conclusions about the results of p / diagnostics	objective	Indicators are used that do not depend on the consciousness and desire of the subject or experimenter
	subjective	Indicators are used that depend on the desire and consciousness of the experimenter or the subject (for example, introspection
By the presence of test norms in the methodology	Having test norms
By the presence of test norms in the methodology	Not having test norms
According to the internal structure of the methodology	monomeric	They diagnose and evaluate the only quality
According to the internal structure of the methodology	Multidimensional	Designed for p / diagnosis or evaluation of several of the same or heterogeneous psychological qualities of a person at once
By type of experimental data analysis	qualitative	The property to be diagnosed is described using well-known scientific concepts
By type of experimental data analysis	quantitative	The diagnosed property is described in terms of the relative degree of its development in a given person compared to other people

Tests and testing

Tests are standardized methods of psychodiagnostics that allow obtaining comparable quantitative and qualitative indicators of the degree of development of the studied properties.

Standardization of the methodology - that is, it should be applied always and everywhere in the same way, from the beginning of the situation to the way the results are interpreted.

Comparability - that is, the scores obtained using the test can be compared with each other regardless of where, when and by whom they were received.

The classification of test types is given in Table. 2

Table 2. Classification of tests

Group sign	Test type name	Brief description of the type of test
By subject of testing (what quality is assessed)	intellectual	Designed for assessment of the level of development of thinking (intelligence) of a person and individual cognitive processes - perception, attention, imagination, memory, speech.
	personal	Associated with p / diagnosis of resistant ind. features of a person that determine his actions - temperament, character, motivation, emotions, abilities.
	interpersonal	Evaluate people. relationships in various social groups
According to the features of the tasks used	Practical test tasks	Z-chi and exercises, cat. the subject must perform, practically manipulating real objects or their substitutes.
	figurative tasks	Exercises with images, pictures, drawings, diagrams, ideas. involve the active use of the imagination.
	Verbal tests	Tasks for operating with words. definition of concepts, conclusions, comparison of the volume and content of decomp. words, etc.
By the nature of the test material presented to the subjects	Blank	Test material is used in the form of forms: drawings, diagrams, tables, questionnaires, etc.
	Hardware	With the use of various equipment for the presentation and processing of test results - audio and TV equipment, computers.
By object of assessment	Procedural	Examine any psychological or behavioral process, for example. the process of memorization, the process of interpersonal interaction in a group.
	Achievement Tests	The success of a person in various types of activities, or areas of knowledge, is assessed - memory productivity, logical thinking, attention stability, etc.
	State and Property Tests	Diagnosis of more or less stable psychological qualities of a person - personality traits, temperament properties, abilities, etc.
special group	Projective tests	Based on an indirect assessment of the psychological qualities of a person. Evaluation is the result of an analysis of the perception and interpretation by a person of some multi-valued objects, for example. shapeless spots, unfinished sentences, etc.

Requirements for tests

A number of special requirements are imposed on tests as methods of accurate psychodiagnostics. It:

Sociocultural adaptability of the test - the correspondence of test tasks and assessments to the characteristics of the culture that has developed in the society where this test is used, being borrowed in another country.

Simplicity of wording and unambiguity of test tasks - in verbal and other tasks of the test there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.

Limited time for completing test tasks - the total time for completing tasks of a psychodiagnostic test should not exceed 1.5-2 hours, because beyond this time it is difficult for a person to maintain his working capacity at a sufficiently high level.

The presence of test norms for a given test are representative averages for a given test, i.e., indicators representing a large population of people with which one can compare the performance of a given individual, assessing the level of his psychological development.

The test norm is the average level of development of a large population of people similar to a given subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics.

Special requirements for psychodiagnostic methods

To be sure of the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic studies, it is necessary that the psychodiagnostic methods used be scientifically substantiated, i.e., meet a number of requirements.

These requirements are

Validity - "usefulness", "fitness", "correspondence". There are several types of validity.

Theoretical validity is determined by the correspondence of the indicators of the quality under study, obtained using this method, to the indicators obtained using other methods. Theoretical validity is checked by correlations of indicators of the same property, obtained using various methods based on or proceeding from the same theory.

Empirical validity - is checked by the correspondence of diagnostic indicators to real behavior, observed actions and reactions of the subject. According to the criterion of empirical validity, the methodology is checked by comparing its indicators with the real life behavior of people.

Validity internal - means the compliance of the tasks, subtests, judgments, etc. contained in the methodology with the general goal and design of the methodology as a whole. It is considered internally invalid when all or part of the questions, tasks or subtests do not measure what is required from this methodology.

External validity is approximately the same as empirical validity, but here we are talking about the relationship between the indicators of the methodology and the most important external features related to the behavior of the subject.

The validity of the methodology is checked and refined in the process of its fairly long-term use.

Validity Criteria:

Behavioral indicators - reactions, actions and deeds of the subject in different life situations.

Achievements of the subject in various activities: educational, labor, creative, etc.

Data on the performance of various control samples and tasks.

Data obtained from other methods, the validity of which or the relationship with this method is considered to be reliably established.

Reliability - characterizes the possibility of obtaining sustainable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways:

by comparing the results obtained by this technique by different people

by comparing the results obtained by the same method under different conditions.

The unambiguity of the methodology is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which this methodology is used.

Accuracy - reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the estimated property that occur during the psychodiagnostic experiment. The more accurate the psychodiagnostic technique, the more finely it can be used to evaluate gradations and reveal shades of the measured quality, although in practical psychodiagnostics a very high degree of accuracy of assessments is not always required.

Rules for testing, processing and interpreting results

There are certain strict rules in this matter.

The most important of them:

Before applying the test, the psychologist needs to try it on himself or another person, which will avoid possible errors due to insufficient knowledge of its nuances.

It is important to make sure that the test subjects understand the tasks and instructions for the test well before starting work.

During testing, all subjects must work independently, without influencing each other.

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Brief characteristics of psychodiagnostic methods. Classifications of psychodiagnostic methods Main approaches to the classification of psychodiagnostic methods

Introduction

1. Classification of methods of psychodiagnostics

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to J. Schwanzare; VC. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov; A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

Conclusion

Bibliography:

Tutoring

Pedagogical psychology (Stolyarenko L

What is crystallography

Language taste, language norm, language aggression

Collection of all rules in the Russian language

Card file of games and exercises on the methodology of teaching reading N

Brief characteristics of psychodiagnostic methods. Classifications of psychodiagnostic methods Main approaches to the classification of psychodiagnostic methods

Introduction

1. Classification of methods of psychodiagnostics

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to J. Schwanzare; VC. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov; A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

Conclusion

Bibliography:

Tutoring

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