Operating with essential features. mental operations. Basic forms of thinking
Question 26. Basic mental operations, their characteristics. Thinking as a process of problem solving.
Operations of thinking
Mental operations constitute interconnected and mutually passing sides of the mental pr-sa. These include comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction and generalization.
Comparison is a comparison of objects, phenomena, their properties and the discovery of similarities and differences between them. Comparison is the primary form of knowledge. Based on the identification of identity and difference, the operation of classification becomes possible.
Analysis is the mental division of an object or phenomenon and the identification of its constituent elements. Analysis singles out cognizable phenomena from those random, unimportant connections in which they are given to us in perception.
Synthesis is the mental reunification of elements into a coherent structure. It restores the whole dismembered by analysis, revealing the essential connections and relationships of its elements. Analysis and synthesis continuously pass from one another to another. Analysis without synthesis leads to a mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of its parts. Synthesis is impossible without analysis, because there are no parts from which it is necessary to restore the whole.
Abstraction is the selection and isolation of any one side or property of an object and phenomenon (essential) and a distraction from the rest. Primitive sensual abstraction already exists in the field of perception (to highlight the form, abstracting from the color, to highlight the color, abstracting from the form). This is a distraction of some sensual aspects of reality from others. Abstraction, which characterizes thinking, means a distraction from the sensible properties of the object and the isolation of its non-sensory objective properties, expressed in abstract concepts. This is the liberation from single, random and superficial layers.
Generalization (generalization) is the unification of objects and phenomena into a single whole based on their common essential connections and patterns. Generalization is carried out in concepts, in the meanings of words. Generalizations can be of the simplest character, when objects are grouped on the basis of a separate, random feature (syncretic generalizations). In the case of a complex generalization, the grouping of objects occurs for various reasons. The most complex are conceptual generalizations, in which generic and specific features of objects are differentiated.
Concretization is an operation inverse to abstraction and generalization. This is a return to the individual specificity of the object being comprehended.
Mental operations have the property of reversibility (the possibility of returning thoughts to the starting point). Each operation is inverse to the pair operation: analysis to synthesis, abstraction and generalization - concretization.
Thinking as a process of problem solving
Thinking is often deployed as a process of problem solving. These tasks can relate to the field of nature, social life, to the person himself. Tasks may arise during the execution of one or another practical activities or be specially created (learning tasks or game tasks). The task acts as an object of thought.
The subject of thinking is the one who solves the problem. We can offer a person to solve a problem, but not always the problem becomes his own, i.e. a person may not accept it (busy, uninteresting task, thinking about something else). What is task acceptance? The act of accepting a task is associating the task with the motives of the individual. In psychological literature, it is usually customary to distinguish two groups of motives: external motives of mental activity and internal ones. This name is arbitrary, but has the following meaning: external motives - the task is solved in order to achieve a result that is not related to the knowledge of the object, the disclosure of the implicit properties of the object. For example, you solve a problem in order to quickly leave the audience, if the following condition is set: who decides, can go. The same task can be solved on the basis of intrinsic motivation, i.e. when prompted by cognitive motives - to learn something new, to understand the problem, the method of solving it.
A person can begin to solve a problem based on external motivation (for example, so that others cannot think that he cannot solve it). But gradually the task captures him so much that he begins to solve for the sake of the very process of solving the problem. Problem solving activities are always polymotivated, i.e. driven by many motives.
The problem to be solved and which is accepted by the subject may initially be solved on the basis of familiar, proven methods, or it may seem to a person that he can easily solve it with familiar methods. However, a person can reach a dead end - previously applied methods do not lead to a solution. A problematic situation arises, for mastering which the individual must find and use new means and techniques. So. A problem situation arises when the subject cannot solve the problem using familiar, already known methods. From the side of the need-motivational sphere, the problem situation is the emergence of a new cognitive need: “What should I do next, what should I do?” This need arises at a certain stage of solving the problem. However, more often the relationship is reversed: first, a problematic situation arises, and then, on its basis, a task is formulated, that is, the desired is outlined, which can be found by transforming certain conditions. Many things are problematic for the discerning mind. Only for those who are not accustomed to thinking independently, there are no problems: everything is taken for granted. The first sign of a thinking person is the ability to see problems where they are.
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Thinking as a process proceeds in the form of operations or mental actions with mental content, which provides information about various events, both real and imaginary. Such operations are analysis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, synthesis and concretization. In the real process of thinking, these operations are interdependent and inseparable.
Analysis(from the Greek. analysis - decomposition, dismemberment) - mental or physical dismemberment of an object, situation, phenomenon into its component parts for the purpose of further study of the latter. Thus, the analysis of the general impression of the disease makes it possible to find out that it manifests itself with certain symptoms and syndromes, occurs for one reason or another and under certain conditions, that it proceeds according to different scenarios, contains a known threat to the patient's ability to work, his health, life, etc. When perceiving speech, the individual first distinguishes its sounds, otherwise he would not be able to understand at all what the people around him are talking about. The analytical mind is often able to discern such subtle details of what is being studied that, in terms of resolution, it can be compared with an electron microscope.
Comparison- comparison of impressions about different objects or phenomena in order to identify signs of similarities and differences between them. Thus, comparing patients even with the same disease and identical diagnosis allows us to establish that they are not only similar in some way, but that there are many differences between them. If we take into account only the latter, then the well-known point of view becomes clear, according to which "there are no diseases, but only the sick."
Antinosologism, generally speaking, is based on the absolutization of differences and ignoring the signs of identity. Comparing people with the same character shows that in everything else they can be completely different people. Absolutization of similarities in this case may lead to ignoring individuality. The primacy of characterology is the triumph of depersonalization. The same thing in the context of individuality sometimes acquires the opposite meaning. Everything is known in comparison - this idea is true to the extent that some absolute indicators in themselves mean nothing.
Generalization- identification of features that are identical for different objects and phenomena. Homogeneous groups of objects can be formed on the basis of such features. Thus, classifications of some phenomena, events, objects are created: “plants”, “planets”, “patients”, “criminals”, etc. The name of a particular class of objects is a general term for it. Generalization is also the process of forming a judgment or decision that is equally applicable to the entire category of relevant objects or situations. Generalization in science is any broad statement that is valid for many single observations. Whether generalizing features are identified correctly or erroneously depends on how constructively the abstraction operation is performed.
abstraction(from lat. abstrahere - to distract) - highlighting the properties of objects or phenomena that are essential in one way or another. An emergency doctor, for example, first of all reveals the signs of the disease, indicating a threat to the life of the patient, and is distracted from others, secondary ones; the forensic psychiatrist needs to focus on symptoms that indicate the insanity or incapacity of the subject, he pays less attention to other mental disorders. In science, abstraction allows the individual to focus on what is insufficiently studied, unknown, not noticed by other researchers; this ability to see gaps in knowledge is quite rare, it is characteristic of exceptionally gifted people.
Abstraction in a broad sense is a distraction from the visual, material properties of objects and phenomena. Abstraction is already present in sensory cognition: perceiving one object, the individual, as it were, is distracted from all others. Abstraction, for all its extreme importance, always carries the danger of being separated from reality and the risk of generating empty, speculative constructions, logically, perhaps, flawless, and therefore seeming convincing. Logically, but incorrectly - this situation is not at all rare. IN cautionary tale medieval scholastics long and fruitlessly argued about whether the mole has eyes, believing that the truth can be known through abstract reasoning, bypassing experience. Truth is always concrete, there is only one way to know it - this is an appeal to reality, practice.
Synthesis(from the Greek synthesis - connection, combination, composition) - the unification of different aspects of knowledge about an object or phenomenon into an integral structure, knowledge of the whole in unity and the interconnection of its parts. Hegel believes that synthesis characterizes the highest level of knowledge, since even the most contradictory knowledge and opinions are reunited in it. Freedom of thought is the right to one's own point of view, the right of everyone to their own truth, synthesis is a necessity, and for many it is an obligation to seek one single truth. Synthesis in everyday thinking is carried out through the use by the individual of previously acquired cognitive schemes - standard or habitual ways of combining heterogeneous impressions. J. Piaget defines this process by the term assimilation - the inclusion of a new object or a new situation in a set of objects or in another situation for which a scheme already exists. A child, for example, who already has a circuit for perceiving birds, upon seeing an airplane for the first time, will mistake it for a bird and will think so until he has a cognitive circuit for perceiving aircraft.
But, as Mephistopheles quipped, there is no benefit in what is known, only the unknown is needed. The search for new theories or cognitive schemas is a creative, albeit error-prone, process. Delusions are usually based on the fact that impressions of reality are connected through inadequate cognitive structures. The process of formation of new cognitive structures and deactivation of obsolete ones is difficult to consciously control, which is why delusions and prejudices are extremely persistent. This very process of expanding knowledge is, in the terminology of J. Piaget, accommodation, that is, the modification of old mental schemes in order to master new objects and situations. The inability to create new, more adequate cognitive schemes and the dominance of the old, not suitable for changing circumstances, is one of the signs of the oncoming dementia. Confucius on the same occasion once remarked that learning without thinking is useless, thinking without knowledge is dangerous.
The collapse of cognitive structures in the disease entails tragic consequences in the form of dementia. So, with Korsakov's syndrome, the patient, receiving all the necessary current ones and retaining memory for past impressions, completely loses the ability to combine them into a holistic understanding of what is happening. Every time he is compelled, as it were, to create the world and himself anew, unsuccessfully. Having adequate cognitive schemes, the individual gets the opportunity to form a more or less true picture of what he perceives even from separate, incomplete and scattered impressions. Knowing, for example, that a certain individual is hardworking, it is possible, without breaking away from the truth of life, to supplement his appearance with such qualities as honesty, responsibility, competence, commitment. But here it is important what exactly is meant by industriousness, that is, on whether the operation of abstraction is correctly performed.
Specification(from lat. concretus - thick, condensed, compacted) - consideration of an object in all its variety of connections and relationships. This operation is opposite to abstraction, both formally and in essence, namely, in the sense that an individual is able to move from theoretical knowledge in the course of concretization to practical knowledge, he gets the opportunity to solve urgent problems in the real world. “Theory, my friend, is dry, but the tree of life is green,” Mephistopheles definitely and quite rightly says about the uselessness of abstract knowledge alone. It is possible to have encyclopedic erudition and at the same time remain completely helpless in Everyday life, that is, to know much more than to understand and be able to. One can, of course, speculate in such a situation, but, alas, such reasoning will very much resemble reasoning emasculated from everything concrete.
Thus, a leading specialist in the problems of psychology and the author of a number of theoretical works admits that he does not understand the problems of the behavior of his own child, does not know how they could be overcome. It is unlikely that such works can be applied with great benefit in practice. Thanks to concretization, abstract knowledge makes it possible to realize a new meaning of already known facts, to see facts that were not noticed before, or even to understand where or how they could be discovered. Problems in this regard are characteristic, apparently, of a considerable number of people, especially of those who think according to the proverb "I will solve someone else's misfortune with my hands." The ability to concretize is an extremely important characteristic of the mind. If it is not developed or simply does not exist, any serious education simply does not make sense or can even play an evil role. If the legislator, for example, cannot imagine the specific consequences of the law he is promoting, then this threatens with negative consequences for himself.
Target: To study the processes of thinking, imagination, speech. Disassemble the main types, types, forms and functions of thinking, imagination and speech. To teach to differentiate normal and pathological thinking, imagination and speech.
The student must know:
Definition of the concepts "thinking", "imagination", "speech".
Types, forms, methods, operations, individual characteristics thinking.
Development of thinking in ontogeny. Laws of logic and thinking.
Thinking disorders. Pathopsychological and clinical classification of thinking disorders.
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Operations of thinking
Location:classroom
Lesson duration: 2 hours.
Target: To study the processes of thinking, imagination, speech. Disassemble the main types, types, forms and functions of thinking, imagination and speech. To teach to differentiate normal and pathological thinking, imagination and speech.
The student must know:
- Definition of the concepts "thinking", "imagination", "speech".
- Types, forms, methods, operations, individual features of thinking.
- Development of thinking in ontogeny. Laws of logic and thinking.
- Thinking disorders. Pathopsychological and clinical classification of thinking disorders.
Main literature:
- Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V. Clinical psychology: textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2008. - 880 p.: illustration.
- Clinical Psychology: Textbook / Ed. B.D. Karvasarsky. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
- Mendelevich V.D. Clinical and medical psychology: A practical guide. - M.: MED - press, 2001. - 592 p.
- Psychology. Dictionary / Under the general. ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M., 1990.
Additional literature:
- Lakosina N.D. Clinical psychology. Proc. for medical students. - M.: MED press-inform, 2003.
- Lakosina N.R., Ushakov G.K. Textbook on medical psychology. - L., 1976.
- Medical psychology: the latest reference book of a practical psychologist / compiled by S.L. Solovyov. - M., 2006.
- Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology: in 2 volumes. - T.1. - M., 1989.
- Nemov "Psychology". - M., 2002.
Initial knowledge level control:
- Define thinking, imagination and speech.
- What types and forms of thinking do you know?
- How is thinking related to other mental processes?
- How does thinking affect imagination and speech?
- What influence do you think emotions have on thinking?
- What causes can lead to a violation of the processes of thinking, imagination and speech?
- What disorders of the functions of thinking, imagination and speech do you know?
- How do you think, how do underdevelopment of the visual, auditory and speech apparatus affect the formation and development of thinking, imagination and speech?
The main questions of the topic:
- Definition of the concept of "thinking". Basic mental operations: analysis and synthesis, comparison (comparison and distinction), abstraction (distraction), generalization, concretization, systematization (classification).
- Types of thinking: concrete-effective, visual-effective (practical), visual-figurative, abstract-logical (sign-symbolic, verbal-logical), creative (creative) thinking.
- Basic forms abstract thinking: concept (category, definition of a concept), judgment, conclusion.
- Methods of thinking: deduction, induction and analogy and their corresponding inferences. Mechanical-associative and logical-associative types of thinking.
- Thinking strategies: random, rational and systematic enumeration. Stages of preparation and incubation in thinking.
- Individual characteristics of thinking: breadth and depth, consistency, flexibility, independence, critical thinking.
- Development of thinking in ontogenesis, stages and age periodization, classification, works by J. Piaget, L.S. Vygodsky, P.Ya. Galperin and others.
- Methods for the study of thinking.
- The basic laws of logic and their role in the study of the phenomenon of thinking in a person in the norm, in borderline conditions and in pathology.
- Pathology of thinking. Clinical and pathopsychological classification of thinking disorders.
Final control of the level of knowledge:
- Define thinking. Types of thinking and forms of thinking?
- What integral characteristics describe the individual characteristics of thinking?
- Why do patients with neuroses tend to think, which is usually referred to as catathymic?
- How, during the conversation, to reveal the safety of the mental operation of generalization or abstraction in a patient with suspected oligophrenia?
- Why are dreams classified as forms of passive imagination? Can dreams be deliberately caused by a person?
- What is the difference between productive imagination and reproductive imagination?
- What are iatrogenic diseases? How is iatrogenic prophylaxis carried out?
- How are the features of a person's imagination used for the purposes of psychodiagnostics?
- How do psychotic fantasies differ from non-psychotic fantasies?
- Define speech. How are speech and language related?
- What is inner speech? How is it formed in ontogenesis, what functions does it perform?
- What is the difference between expressive and impressive speech?
- What is the difference between tracing speech and colloquial gestural speech of deaf and dumb people?
- The disappearance of the need for communication is the main symptom of autism. What is reverse autism and what are the symptoms?
- What is the main feature that distinguishes aphasia from alalia?
- What is meant by the concepts of left hemisphere and right hemisphere thinking?
- What are the differences between convergent and divergent thinking?
- How is the phenomenon of diversity of thinking manifested in the subject version of the classification methodology?
- What are the main differences between the overvalued and obsessive ideas of jealousy, heart disease?
- How is the assessment of the pathology of children's lying carried out?
- What individual phenomena of children's fantasizing should be alarming in terms of the possibility of a child having a mental illness?
- What is the name of the lack of pronunciation of the letter "r"? what group of disorders do dyslalias belong to?
- Visual aids, didactic material:presentation, diagrams, task cards, textbooks.
- Lesson structure.
- 1. Organizational part-5 min.
- 2. Reporting the purpose of the lesson-1 min.
- 3.Explanation of new material - 65 min
- 4. Primary fixing of the material - 13 min.
- 5. Explanation of homework-2 min.
- 6. End of the lesson - 4 min.
- During the classes.
- Organizing moment - 5 min.
- - Greetings
- Reporting the purpose of the lesson-1 min.
- Today we will study new topic, which is called "Thinking Operations".
- Mental activity arises and proceeds in the form of special mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concretization and systematization) with a subsequent transition to the formation of concepts.
Analysis - mental division of the whole into parts. It is based on the desire to know the whole deeper by studying each of its parts. There are two types of analysis: analysis as a mental decomposition of the whole into parts and analysis as a mental separation of its individual features or aspects as a whole.
Synthesis - mental connection of parts into a single whole. Just as in analysis, two types of synthesis are distinguished: synthesis as a mental union of parts of the whole and synthesis as a mental combination of various features, aspects, properties of objects and phenomena of reality.
Comparison - mental establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena, their properties or qualitative features.
Abstraction (distraction)- mental selection of essential properties or features while abstracting from non-essential properties; signs of objects and phenomena. To think abstractly means to be able to extract some moment, side, feature or property of a cognizable object and consider them without connection with other features of the same object.
Generalization - mental association of objects or phenomena on the basis of properties and features that are common and essential for them, the process of reducing less general concepts to more general ones.
Specification - mental selection from the general one or another particular particular property or feature, otherwise - a mental transition from generalized knowledge to a single, specific case.
Systematization (classification)- mental distribution of objects or phenomena into groups or subgroups depending on similarities and differences (categories division by essential feature).
All mental operations (actions) do not occur in isolation, but in various combinations.
- Types of thinking
There are three main types of thinking that appear sequentially in the process of ontogenesis: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical.
Visual-effective (practical) thinking- a type of thinking that relies on direct sensory impressions of objects and phenomena of reality, i.e. their primary image (sensations and perceptions). In this case, a real, practical transformation of the situation takes place in the process of specific actions with specific objects. This kind of thinking can exist only in conditions of direct perception of the field of manipulation.
Visual-figurative thinking- a type of thinking, which is characterized by reliance on ideas, i.e. secondary images of objects and phenomena of reality, and also operates with visual images of objects (drawing, diagram, plan). Unlike visual-effective thinking, here the situation is transformed only in terms of its internal (subjective) image, but at the same time it becomes possible to select the most unusual and even incredible combinations of both the objects themselves and their properties. Visual-figurative thinking - the basis for the formation of verbal - logical thinking.
Abstract-logical (abstract, verbal, theoretical) thinking - a kind of thinking that relies on abstract concepts and logical actions with them. With visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking, mental operations are carried out with the information that sensory knowledge gives us in the form of direct perception of specific objects and their images-representations. Abstract-logical thinking, thanks to abstraction, allows you to create an abstract and generalized picture of the situation in the form of thoughts, i.e. concepts, judgments and conclusions that are expressed in words.
These types of thinking develop in the process of ontogenesis sequentially from the subject-active to the conceptual.
The thinking of an adult person includes signs of all three types: subject-effective, visual-figurative and conceptual. The ratio of these types of thinking is determined not only by age, but also by individual characteristics and is associated with the dominance of one of the hemispheres. The predominance of effective and visual-figurative thinking is typical for people with a dominant activation of the right hemisphere, such people are more successful in technical activities, they are better at geometry and drawing, they are prone to artistic activities. Individuals with dominance of the left hemisphere have a higher success rate in theoretical, verbal-logical thinking, they are more successful in mathematics (algebra), and scientific activities. In the practical activity of an adult, there is a constant transition from practical to figurative and logical thinking and vice versa. Developed practical thinking is characterized by “the ability to quickly understand a difficult situation and almost instantly find the right solution”, that is, what is usually called intuition.
intuitive thinking is characterized by the speed of flow, the absence of clearly defined stages, low awareness, in contrast to discursive, step-by-step expanded, conscious thinking. The high speed of intuitive problem solving is due to the restructuring of the processes of logical and figurative thinking. It acquires special significance in difficult situations of activity (complexity of the situation, lack of time, the need to take into account the opposing forces, high responsibility for every decision). It is these parameters that characterize the work of a doctor. Therefore, in the practical activity of a doctor, all these types of thinking act in unity.
Creative and critical thinking.If we consider thinking from the point of view of novelty, originality of the problem being solved, then we can distinguish between creative (productive, divergent, creative) and reproducing (reproductive, convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is thinking, the result of which is the discovery of a fundamentally new or improvement in the solution of a problem. Guilford, a well-known researcher of creative thinking, identified four main factors of creativity.
1. Originality characterizes the originality of creative thinking, the unusual approach to the problem, the ability to give non-standard answers.
2. Flexibility - the ability for a variety of answers, for quick switching.
3. Integration as the ability to simultaneously take into account several opposing conditions, sub-conditions or principles.
4. Sensitivity as the ability to notice subtle details, similarities or differences.
Studying creative thinking, Torrance found that the peak of creativity is observed in childhood (from 3.5 to 4.5 years), then it increases in the first three years of schooling and in the prepubertal period. Subsequently, there is a downward trend.
Conformity (the desire to be like everyone else, the fear of standing out. That is why there is internal censorship - a person rejects everything that may not be accepted by other people) acts as obstacles to creative thinking, often unconsciously; rigidity - the desire of thinking to follow the beaten path, solve problems in the usual ways, excessively high motivation, the desire to find an answer immediately also often makes a person use the first solution that comes to mind, which, as a rule, is not innovative.
Critical thinking- verification of the proposed hypotheses in order to determine the area of their possible application. It can be said that creative thinking creates new ideas, while critical thinking reveals their shortcomings and defects.
Based on all that has been said, when describing thinking, one can distinguish its following qualities: depth-superficiality; latitude-narrowness; speed-slowness; flexibility-rigidity; originality-triviality.
- Basic forms of thinking
Concepts, judgments and inferences are the main forms with which mental operations are performed in abstract thinking. concept - a form of thinking that reflects the most general and essential features, properties of an object or phenomenon of the objective world, expressed in a word. Concepts are based on our knowledge of these objects or phenomena. It is customary to distinguish between general and singular concepts.
General concepts are those that cover a whole class of homogeneous objects or phenomena that bear the same name. General concepts reflect the features inherent in all objects that are united by the corresponding concept.
Any general concepts arise only on the basis of single objects and phenomena. The path of concept formation is the movement from the particular to the general, i.e. through generalization.
The basis for the formation of concepts is practice. Very often, when we lack practical experience, some of our concepts are distorted. They may be unreasonably narrowed or expanded. It should be distinguishedIT concepts,which are formed through personal practical experience. The prevailing place in them is occupied by visual-figurative connections.Scientific concepts , which are formed with the leading participation of formal-logical operations, their definition is formed through generic differences.
In logical termsonly comparable concepts can be found.Diagnostic errors of a doctor can be associated with a violation of the logic of thinking in terms of, for example, a specific disease - an overly broad or too narrow understanding of the content and scope of the concept of it, replacing the definition of an illness with its description listing individual symptoms.
To master a concept means not only to be able to name its features, even if they are very numerous, but also to be able to apply the concept in practice, i.e. know how to operate it. One of the most important points in the assimilation of the concept is its awareness. Sometimes, using a concept, we do not fully understand its meaning. Therefore, awareness of a concept can be considered as the highest step in the formation of concepts, as a link connecting the concept and understanding.
Judgment - a form of thinking that reflects the relationship between concepts, expressed as an affirmation or negation. If the concept reflects the totality of the essential features of objects, lists them, then the judgment reflects their connections and relationships. Usually a judgment (for example: The rose is red) consists of two concepts - two terms of the judgment: subject (from Latin subjectum - subject), i.e. that, in relation to which something is affirmed or denied in the judgment, and the predicate (from lat. praedicatum - predicate), i.e. verbal expression of affirmation or negation.
In general judgments, something is affirmed or denied regarding all objects of a given class or group (for example: All fish breathe with gills). In private, judgments, this refers to some representatives of a class or group (for example: Some students are excellent students). A single judgment is called, in which something is affirmed or denied about one subject (for example: This building is an architectural monument). Any judgment can be either true or false, i.e. correspond or not correspond to reality.
In the process of our operating with various judgments using certain mental operations, another form of thinking arises - inference.
inference - this is a form of thinking, by means of which a new judgment (conclusion) is derived from one or more judgments (premisses). Inference is the highest form of thinking and is the formation of new judgments based on the transformation of existing ones. Inference as a form of thinking is based on concepts and judgments and is most often used in the processes of theoretical thinking.
Any conclusion consists of premises, conclusion and conclusion. The premises of an inference are the original judgments from which a new judgment is derived. This new judgment, obtained logically from the premises, is called the conclusion. And the very logical transition from the premises to the conclusion is the conclusion. The relationship of logical consequence between the premises and the conclusion implies a connection between the premises in terms of content. If the judgments are not related in content, then the conclusion from them is impossible. If there is a meaningful connection between the premises, we can obtain new true knowledge in the process of reasoning, subject to two conditions: the premises must be true and certain rules of inference must be observed - methods of thinking.
- Methods of thinking
Inference is the most complex form and product of thinking. It is based on the data of a series of judgments and is carried out by reasoning.There are three main methods (methods) for obtaining inferences in reasoning: deduction, induction and analogy.
deductive reasoning- the course of reasoning when obtaining a conclusion goes from more general knowledge to particular (from general to singular), here the transition from general knowledge to particular is logically necessary.
inductive reasoning- reasoning goes from particular knowledge to general provisions. Here, an empirical generalization takes place, when, on the basis of the recurrence of a feature, it is concluded that it belongs to all the phenomena of this class.
Inference by analogy- makes it possible in reasoning a logical transition from known knowledge about a separate subject to new knowledge about another separate subject based on the likening of one phenomenon to another (from a single case to similar single cases or from particular to particular, bypassing the general).
- Types of thinking
The first attempts to highlight the specifics of thinking go back to the associative direction in psychology, where the main feature of thinking is its purposeful and productive nature. Within this area, there aremechanical-associative And logical-associative types of thinking.
Mechanical-associative type of thinking- associations are formed mainly according to the laws of contiguity, similarity or contrast. Here there is no clear goal of thinking, i.e. that special regulator that ensures the selection of the necessary material and the formation of causal associations. Such "free" (chaotic-mechanical) association can be observed in sleep (this often explains the bizarreness of some dream images), as well as with a decrease in the level of wakefulness (with fatigue of the disease).
Logical-associative thinking- Differs in purposefulness and value. For this, a regulator of associations is always needed - the goal of thinking. X. Lipman (1904) used an abstract concept to designate this goal - "guiding ideas". They direct associations, which leads to the selection (on a subconscious level) of the necessary material for the formation of semantic associations. Guiding ideas are, in the words of E. Kretschmer (1888-1964), the magnet that keeps related ideas in the field of consciousness. This kind of thinking requires apperception with a certain focus on the goal of thinking.
Our ordinary thinking consists of both logical-associative (apperceptive) and mechanical-associative thinking. We have the first with concentrated intellectual activity, the second with fatigue.
Individual features of thinking
All the above differences in the mental activity of people (type, type and strategies of thinking) determine the individual characteristics of the thinking of each individual person. They develop in the process of life, activity and are largely determined by the conditions of training and education. The typological properties of a person's higher nervous activity, his affective sphere, and the features of functional interhemispheric interaction are also important. Individual features of thinking determine such integral characteristics as the breadth and depth of thinking, its consistency, flexibility, independence and criticality. The listed features of thinking in different people are combined and expressed in different ways, which characterizes the individual characteristics of their thinking as a whole.
breadth of mind It manifests itself in the outlook of a person and is characterized by the versatility of knowledge, the ability to think creatively and consider any issue in the variety of its connections with other phenomena, the ability to broad generalizations.
depth of mind It is expressed in the ability to penetrate into the essence of the issue, the ability to see the problem, highlight the main thing in it and foresee the consequences of the decision. The quality opposite to the depth of thinking is the superficiality of judgments and conclusions, when a person pays attention to the little things and does not see the main thing.
Sequence of thinkingexpressed in the ability to establish a logical order in solving various issues. Quick thinking is the ability to quickly assess the situation, quickly think and make decisions, and easily switch to solving different problems.
Flexibility of thinkingexpressed in its freedom from the shackling influence of existing stereotypes, the ability to find non-traditional solutions depending on changes in the situation.
Independence of thinkingIt is expressed in the ability of a person to put forward new questions and tasks, to find new ways to solve them independently, without outside help. Such thinking is not amenable to inspiring extraneous influence.
Critical thinking- this is a person's ability to objectively evaluate their own and other people's judgments, the ability to abandon their statements that do not correspond to reality, to subject the proposals and judgments of other people to critical consideration.
- Development of thinking in ontogeny
For a long time, the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (Piaget J., 1966) has been studying the child psychology of thinking. He considered the development of thinking as a spontaneous, regularly occurring transition from external actions to internal mental operations. In the studies of J. Piaget and his psychological school the qualitative originality of children's thinking is shown, a special children's logic, different from that of an adult, and it is traced how thinking gradually changes its character as the child grows up.
In the very early age the child is forced to motorize each action in order to solve the tasks facing him. During this period of action, it is still maximally deployed, they contain many visible components. With age, they change under the influence coagulation: action components are qualitatively transformed and their number decreases. At some stage of age development, it becomes possible for them to dive and transformation into mental operations(interiorization).Thus, at first the child learns the world in actions, then in images, then a symbolic representation of the world is formed in him through language and abstract thinking.
Piaget identifies four stages in the cognitive development of children:
1. Stage of sensory-motor operations (sensory-motor intelligence)- actions with specific, sensually perceived material: objects, their images, lines, figures of various shapes, sizes and colors. This stage continues in children up to 2 years of age and is free from the use of language; there are no presentations. All behavior and intellectual acts of the child are focused on the coordination of perception and movements (hence the name "sensory-motor"), the formation of "sensory-motor schemes" of objects is underway, the first skills are formed, and the constancy of perception is established.
2. Stage of pre-operational intelligence (2-7 years)- characterized by formed speech, ideas, internalization of action into thought (action is replaced by some kind of sign: word, image, symbol). If earlier child performed various external actions to achieve the goal, now he can already combine the schemes of actions in his mind and suddenly come to the right decision.
This stage of intellectual development is calledrepresentative intelligence- thinking with the help of representations. A strong figurative beginning with insufficient development of verbal thinking leads to a kind of childish logic. At the stage of preoperational representations, the child is not capable of proof, reasoning. The mastery of concepts and logic in children is formed gradually - in the process of operating objects and in learning.
All the features of the early (pre-conceptual) form of thinking J. Piaget explains by the phenomenon inherent in young childrenchildish egocentrism- the child's idea that everything around him is related to him, perceives the world as his continuation, which makes sense only in terms of meeting needs. Egocentrism is a special intellectual position of the child. He is not yet able to freely perform transformations of the reference system, the beginning of which is rigidly connected with himself, with his "I". All this does not allow children under 5 years of age to correctly understand situations that require the adoption of someone else's position, to coordinate different points of view.
J. Piaget distinguishes three main levels of egocentrism:
- lack of distinction between subject and object by a child under 1.5 years old;
- insufficient distinction between one's own and someone else's point of view by a child under 7-8 years old, which gives rise to such features of a preschooler's thinking as syncretism or animism;
- a teenager's belief in the limitless possibilities of his own thinking and the ability to transform the world(11-14 years old).
3. Stage of specific operations(8-11 years old) - characterized by the awareness of the reversibility and symmetry of relationships by overcoming egocentrism. The stage of specific operations is associated with the ability to reason, prove, correlate different points of view. Logical operations, however, need to be based on visibility, they cannot be performed in a hypothetical plan (therefore they are called concrete). All logical operations depend on specific applications. In particular, the child can already form both relations and classes from concrete objects. If at the age of 7 the child manages to arrange the sticks along their length, then only at the age of 9.5 he does a similar operation with body weights, and with volumes - only at 11-12 years. Logical operations have not yet become generalized for the child.
4. Stage of formal operations(12-15 years old) - a teenager is freed from a specific attachment to objects given in the field of perception, which characterizes the completion of the formation of logical thinking. A teenager acquires the ability to think in the same way as an adult, i.e. hypothetically, deductively. This stage is characterized by operating with logical relations, relative concepts, abstraction and generalizations. The entry of a teenager into the stage of formal logical operations causes in him a hypertrophied attraction to general theories, the desire for "theorizing", which, according to J. Piaget, is an age-related feature of adolescents. For adolescents, the general becomes more important and essential than particulars, they tend to create their own theories in politics or philosophy. Syllogisms become the basis for the operations of logical thinking at this age.
In our country, the theory of the formation and development of intellectual operations, proposed by P.Ya. Galperin. This theory was based on the idea of a genetic dependence between internal intellectual operations and external practical actions. He talked about the existence of a gradual formation of thinking. In his works, Galperin singled out the stages of internalization of external actions, determined the conditions that ensure the successful transfer of external actions into internal ones. Galperin believed that the development of thinking at different stages is directly related to objective activity, to the manipulation of objects. However, the transfer of external actions into internal ones with their transformation into certain mental operations does not occur immediately, but in stages.
- The first stage is characterized by the formation of an indicative basis for future action. The main function of this stage is to get acquainted in practice with the composition of the future action, as well as with the requirements that this action must ultimately meet.
- The second stage of the formation of mental action is associated with its practical development, which is carried out with the use of objects.
- The third stage is connected with the continuation of the development of a given action, but without relying on real objects. At this stage, the action is transferred from the external, visual-figurative plan to the internal plan. The main feature of this stage is the use of external speech as a substitute for manipulating real objects. Galperin believed that the transfer of an action to a speech plan means, first of all, the speech performance of a certain objective action, and not its voicing.
- At the fourth stage of mastering mental action, external speech is abandoned. The transfer of the external speech execution of the action entirely into internal speech is carried out. A specific action is performed "silently".
- At the fifth stage, the action is carried out entirely on the internal plane, with appropriate reductions and transformations. With the subsequent withdrawal of the performance of this action from the sphere of consciousness (i.e., constant control over its implementation) into the sphere of intellectual skills and abilities.
Conceptual thinking comes to replace pre-conceptual thinking gradually, through a series of intermediate stages, L.S. Vygodsky (1982) identified five stages in the transition to the formation of concepts:
- a child of 2-3 years old is a vivid syncretism (an operation that replaces analysis and synthesis for a child), which manifests itself in the fact that when asked to put similar objects together, the child puts any of them together, believing that those placed nearby are suitable;
- a child of 2-6 years old - chains of pairwise similarity appear in the classification of objects, i.e. it shows elements of objective similarity of two objects, but already the third object may differ from the two previous ones;
- a child of 7-10 years old - can unite a group of objects by similarity, but is not yet able to recognize and name the main features of the entire group;
- a child of 11-14 years old - conceptual thinking appears, but still imperfect, since the primary concepts are formed on the basis of everyday experience and are not supported by scientific knowledge;
- adolescence - the use of theoretical provisions allows you to go beyond everyday experience and correctly determine the boundaries of the class-concept.
According to many psychologists, the formation of logic also usually requires special training.
- The study of thinking
Already in the course of a purposeful conversation, we can assess the features of the patient's thought process, delve into the essence of individual operations, identify clinically delineated violations of the flow of associations or pathological ideas (delusional, overvalued, obsessive). You should pay attention to the pace of thinking, the activity of performing mental operations. When thinking is accelerated, it is characterized by increased distractibility, superficiality of associations, ease of switching from one topic to another, a "leap of ideas". In the case of slow thinking processes, patients slowly move from one judgment to another, conclusions are formed slowly, associations arise with difficulty, switching from one topic to another is difficult.
In addition to questioning and evaluating behavior, in the study of thinking they have great importance experimental psychological methods. But without knowing the personal characteristics of the patient, the correct assessment of the results pilot study thinking is very difficult. There are a large number of experimental psychological methods that can be used to investigate various aspects of impaired thinking.
The pace and flow of associations.From a physiological point of view, the study of associations is nothing but the study of temporary connections formed in past life experience. They are reproduced under the influence of stimulus words and are expressed in speech reactions. This technique is suitable for studying the rate of formation of associative links (the pace of thinking), the development of the processes of generalization and abstraction, as well as other features of thinking and the personality as a whole.
In the most common classical version of the associative experiment, the patient is asked to immediately respond to each word proposed by the experimenter with the first word that comes to mind.
Usually a set of 20-60 words is offered: the answer is recorded, as well as the time between the word of the researcher and the response of the patient (latent period, normally equal to 1.5-2 s).
Classification - an operation of the thinking process that requires the ability to identify the essential features of objects.
The technique is aimed primarily at the study of thinking (the processes of generalization and abstraction, the sequence of conclusions, etc.), but it also makes it possible to analyze the criticality and deliberation of the patient's actions, the volume and stability of his attention, personal reactions to his achievements and failures.
The technique is applicable to the study of children and adults of any educational level. However, for the study of children up to the 3rd-4th grade of school and semi-literate adults, part of the cards should be excluded (measuring devices, study guides). It is proposed to sort (classify) with the rationale for your decision 70 cards with color and black and white images various items, people, animals, plants.
The technique allows to identifyreduction of the process of generalization,which is typical for patients with oligophrenia and epilepsy. Specific thinking, which is characteristic of oligophrenia, is determined in cases where the subject combines objects into purely specific situational groups (for example, a coat with a wardrobe, "because the coat is hanging in the closet").
A penchant for detail characteristic of patients with epilepsy, is determined in cases where the subject identifies groups correctly, but splits them too much(for example, “home and going out clothes”, “upholstered furniture and kitchen furniture”). It is necessary to distinguish from excessive detailing such an execution of the task, when there are also many groups, but this is not due to fragmentation, but to the presencegroups of the same name.This will already be a manifestation of forgetfulness, absent-mindedness,narrowing the scope of attention, which happens with vascular and other organic brain diseases.
The technique is very sensitive to identifying specific disorders of thinking characteristic of patients with schizophrenia: distortion of generalization processes, actualization of random associations, diversity of thinking, and some others. The main thing that can be noted in these cases is that patients begin to put together some groups in an extremely generalized way, while others in an excessively detailed way. This alone can be regarded asthought inconsistency,most common in schizophrenia. A similar phenomenon can sometimes be found in organic diseases of the brain, but only during an exacerbation of psychopathological disorders.
There are a number of modifications of the classification methodology: classification geometric shapes, special tasks for the exclusion of concepts, highlighting the essential features of objects.
Methodology "Exclusion of objects (concepts)"- the ability to distinguish between heterogeneous concepts is assessed. The subject must exclude from the group “extra” of four or five objects (for example: “table, mortar, bed, floor, cupboard"; "decrepit, old, worn out, little , decrepit"). Sometimes cards with pictures (words) are specially introduced into the task, where it is impossible to make such an exception and generalization. Healthy subjects in such cases declare that the task is impossible, and patients with schizophrenia easily combine objects into a group using a “weak”, latent sign of one or another object.
Methodology "Identification of essential features of objects (concepts)" -allows you to judge the quality of understanding of the main and secondary features of objects and phenomena.Tasks are offered where the subject must highlight the essential features of the key concept, emphasizing the features without which this concept does not exist (for example,"Garden: plants, gardener, dog, fence, land" or "River, shore, fish, angler, mud, water").
Understanding the figurative meaning of proverbs. To study the processes of abstraction, the patient can be offered tasks to understand the figurative meaning of proverbs or understand the content of plot pictures and short stories (including those with absurdities). Here, an essential role in the overall evaluation of the results is played by the attitude of the subject to the mistakes made - whether he notices them on his own, or only with the help of the experimenter. At the same time, it is required to know how he motivates erroneous decisions and how much they are available for correction.
Formation of artificial concepts(method of double stimulation). The subject is offered two rows of stimuli: one row plays the role of an object to which the behavior is directed, the other - the role of a sign with which the behavior is organized. For example, there is a set of volumetric geometric shapes, different in shape, size and color. On the reverse side of the figures, words unfamiliar to the subject (“oks”, “nur”, etc.) are written. It is required after several trials to find all the figures with the given words. Pay attention to how many such samples were needed for the subject to form an artificial concept, i.e. the sign on which the selection was made. Sometimes, while correctly recognizing the figures, the subject cannot correctly name their common features, which may indicate the weakness of the processes of generalization and distraction at the verbal level. Thus, the subject of study in this experiment is not only the process of comparing and generalizing figures, but also the influence of the word (sign) on this process, denoting the desired combination of features.
The study of logical connections and relationships between concepts- the methodology of education is applied paired analogies in pictorial and verbal versions, where, in accordance with the sample (pair of words), a new pair is selected, similar in terms of the feature presented in the sample. For example: school/training;hospital/(doctor, student, institution, treatment, patient).
Understanding syllogisms.A special group of methods was made up of methods for studying logical thinking by studying the subject's understanding of inferences based on the four figures of the syllogism, as well as their graphic representations in the form of intersecting contours (circles or ellipses) of syllogisms, relations between the volumes of concepts - Venn diagrams, etc.
The study of constructive thinking.To study constructive thinking, specially colored cubes (Kos' cubes, Link's cube) are used, from which it is proposed to lay out patterns according to the model (complexity or fold a large cube of a given color.
- Classification of thought disorders in pathopsychology
On the basis of experimental psychological studies of thinking, three main types of thinking disorders can usually be distinguished (Zeigarnik B.V., 1962): violations of the operational side of thinking; violations of the personal (motivational) component of thinking; violations of the dynamics of mental activity. Various combinations of these violations are also possible.
I. Violations of the operational side of thinkinglie in the fact that in patients the ability to use the basic operations of thinking is disturbed and lost. This usually refers to the operations of generalization and abstraction (abstraction). Violations of the operational side of thinking are usually reduced to its two extreme variants: a decrease in the level of generalization and a distortion of the generalization process.
1. Reducing the level of generalization- in the judgments of patients, concrete, direct ideas about objects and phenomena dominate, and higher levels of generalization, where abstraction is required, are difficult for the patient to access. Most typical of this kind of violation for patients with dementia. With a pronounced decrease in the level of generalization, they do not cope with the classification task at all. The mental operation of association and opposition is also difficult (the exclusion of the superfluous of the four objects presented), the interpretation and understanding of the figurative meaning of proverbs becomes inaccessible.
2. Distortion of the generalization process- is, as it were, the opposite of lowering the level of generalization, since the essential properties of objects, phenomena, the existing connections between them are not taken into account by the patients at all during the operation of generalization. In this case, the patient can isolate them by abstraction, i.e. he takes extremely general signs and connections as the basis of his generalization, but they are completely random, undirected and inadequate. For example, when classifying, the patient combines a fork, a table and a shovel into one group on the basis of "hardness", and combines a mushroom, a horse and a pencil into a group on the basis of "connection of organic with inorganic". All this creates the basis for fruitless wisdom - reasoning . The most typical violations of thinking by the type of distortion of the process of generalization for patients with schizophrenia.
II. Violations of the personal (motivational) component of thinkingare manifested in violations of the regulatory, motivational function of thinking, as well as its criticality with the phenomena of actualization of the latent properties of concepts, "diversity" and "discontinuity" of thinking.
Thinking is a complex self-regulating form of activity; it is always determined by the goal, i.e. assigned task. The loss of purposefulness leads not only to superficiality and incompleteness of judgments, but also to the loss of thinking functions that regulate behavior, since there is no thinking that is divorced from the needs, motives, aspirations and feelings of a person, his personality as a whole.
The signs of the objects on the basis of which the classification is carried out are stable for a healthy person. This stability of the objective meaning of things is often disturbed in patients with schizophrenia, which in the experimental situation leads toupdating latent, i.e. hidden, understandable and interesting only to the patient himself, signs and properties of objects that acquired meaning for him only thanks to painfully changed motives and attitudes or updated from memory on the basis of past life experience. For example, a patient in one group combines the sun, a candle and a kerosene lamp and excludes an electric lamp. At the same time, he says that "the electric lamp smells too much of civilization, which killed everything that was good in a person ...". In another case, the patient, correctly performing many experimental tasks, suddenly, in an experiment to “eliminate the superfluous”, upon presentation of cards with the image of glasses, scales, a thermometer and a watch, offers a group of “medical” items: “The doctor looks at the pulse through the glasses and determines the body temperature thermometer." Such a violation of thinking is also based on the use by the patient not of the main, but of latent signs for the classification of objects and phenomena.
Such single deviations from the correct implementation of the classification methodology constitute the essence of thinking disorders according to the type slipping . The patient, correctly solving the task as a whole, suddenly suddenly goes astray from the correct train of thought due to a false, inadequate association, and then is again able to continue reasoning consistently, without returning to the mistake made and without correcting it. Slips in thinking are usually found in patients with initial forms of schizophrenia.
Violations of the personality-motivational component of thinking are especially pronounced indiversity of thinking. Here, the patients also do not maintain a single line of reasoning when considering a phenomenon, but approach it from different positions. Judgments at the same time proceed in the patient as if on different planes. He combines objects during the performance of the same task, either on the basis of the properties of the objects themselves, or on the basis of their personal tastes and attitudes. In these cases, there is also an actualization of the "latent" properties of objects that exist along with adequate reactions. For example, a patient unites groups either on the basis of a generalized sign (animals, dishes, furniture), then on the basis of a particular sign - material (iron, glass), colors (red, blue), then on the basis of their moral or general theoretical ideas - a group of "sweeping everything bad in life”, a group “testifying to the strength of the human mind”. Thus, during the execution of the classification technique, several such inadequate task groups appear.
The actualization of the latent properties of concepts, the diversity of thinking and reasoning (a tendency to fruitless sophistication) find their expression in speech, which in a number of patients acquires a “torn” character that is not understandable to others, since it consists of a set of completely unrelated phrases. Sentences with outwardly grammatically correct form are completely meaningless - the parts of the sentence are not logically connected to each other. Such speech is a clinical expressionfragmented thinking. Often such patients do not need an interlocutor (a symptom of a monologue), i.e. speech for them loses its function of communication.
III. Violations of the dynamics of mental activitymanifest themselves in inertia (viscosity) or in the lability of thinking as a mental process consisting of a chain of inferences turning into reasoning.
At inertia of thinkingslowness, stiffness of intellectual processes is found. At the same time, it is difficult for patients to change the chosen way of working, change the course of their reasoning, switch from one type of activity to another. Concrete connections of previous experience dominate, there is a tendency to excessive detail and thoroughness. The most common inertia of thinking occurs in epilepsy.
At lability of thinkingthere are inverse relationships - thoughts and ideas replace each other so quickly that patients sometimes do not have time to register them in their speech. They do not have time to finish one thought, as they are already moving on to another. Due to increased distractibility, they become unproductive: generalized solutions alternate with specific situational ones, and logical connections are often replaced by random combinations.
- Classical classification of thinking disorders
Classifications of mental disorders in pathopsychology provide an opportunity to better understand the psychological structure of most clinical manifestations of thinking, but do not replace clinical classifications. Mental disorders in patients in psychiatry are most often conditionally divided into two large groups: quantitative (disorders of the associative process) and qualitative (pathology of judgments and inferences).
I. Pathology of the associative process.Most of the associative thought disorders are not found in an isolated, "pure" form, but in a wide variety of combinations.
1. Thinking tempo disorders
- Rapid thinking (tachyphrenia)- increase in the number of associations per unit of time. Thinking remains focused, but becomes unproductive, as simple associations begin to predominate (according to consonance, similarity, contiguity, contrast), thoughts become superficial and unproven. The highest degree acceleration of thinking is a symptom of the "leap of ideas" - extreme distractibility with a continuous change in the subject matter of statements, depending on objects that accidentally come into view. Fast-paced thinking is characteristic of manic states.
- slow thinking(bradyphrenia) - a decrease in the number of associations per unit of time. At the same time, although thinking retains its purposefulness, it also becomes unproductive - the associative process becomes impoverished and impoverished. The slowdown of the associative process is typical for depression.
2. Thinking Mobility Disorders
but) Detailed thinking- the goal of reasoning is not achieved by shortcut, but through a lot of secondary, secondary associations, insignificant details and details, which makes thinking uneconomical.
b) Detailed thinking- pronounced detailing, combined with a long-term stuck on side associations (substantiality), but still with a subsequent return to the main topic of thought; this is labyrinthine, unproductive thinking.
c) Viscous thinking - an extreme degree of thoroughness, in which detailing to such an extent distorts the main direction of thought, which makes it practically incomprehensible, and thinking unproductive. The patient usually cannot keep the main line of conversation on his own, since he cannot get rid of side associations and gets stuck, “gets stuck” in them.
In a number of cases, “thinking stuck” is manifested in the fact that the patient gives the same answer to any questions or monotonously repeats one phrase. This mental disorder is called perseveration . Perseverations are also observed with damage to the sensory center of Wernicke's speech.
Violations of the mobility of thinking are characteristic of epileptic dementia, organic diseases of the brain.
3. Purposeful Thinking Disorders
but) Reasonable thinking- the purpose of the reasoning "eludes" the patient, which leads to "reasoning" on an insignificant occasion, idle talk, it is not clear to those around him "why" he says this. Content - banal moralizing, moralized, well-known sayings, etc. The speech is grammatically correct, but verbose and overloaded with participial and participle phrases, introductory words. Such thinking is unproductive, it is concrete, because it is not based on experience and does not belong to the abstract due to the lack of generalization.
b) Ataxic-associative ("broken") thinking- characterized by the complete absence of a logical connection between associations: what should be united is disconnected, and heterogeneous is connected. Ataxic thinking usually manifests itself in grammatically correct phrases: “I went to the store riding a three-story house”, “Flies with wings under water”, etc.
c) Paralogical thinking- the formation of logical connections between associations is also disrupted, but unlike broken thinking, where concepts and representations are combined with each other on the basis of completely random features, here thinking is characterized by obvious violations of formal logic. The patient comes to completely unfounded, even absurd conclusions, since in the chain of reasoning there is a “sliding” from the main series of thinking to a secondary one due to the loss of the logical connection between the elements. More precisely, associations here arise not according to the laws of generally accepted logic, but on the basis of some other logic that is “understandable” only to the sickest person (autistic, “crooked” logic). As an accidental phenomenon, such paralogisms are observed in a state of affect that violates the logical flow of thoughts, and as a permanent disorder, they are characteristic of schizophrenia.
A characteristic feature of paralogical thinking is that one object can be considered as an equivalent of any other if similarities are found between them.
d) Symbolic thinking.Symbolism is also characteristic of normal thinking when it reflects generally accepted ideas and views (coat of arms, mathematical signs, fable characters, etc.). With pathological symbolism, it is purely individual and incomprehensible to others. At the same time, there is a logical processing in the patient's reasoning, but a different meaning is embedded in the generally accepted concepts with which his thinking operates, which is understandable only to himself. As a result, many phenomena and objects of the surrounding world acquire a special meaning for the patient, different from the generally accepted one.
In the initial stages, symbolism may appearamorphous thinking, where only the fuzziness of the use of concepts is noticeable. At the same time, grammatically correctly constructed speech becomes vague, and the patient’s thoughts are therefore obscure to others - it is not clear “what” the patient is talking about (distinguish from reasoning, where it is not clear “why” the patient says this).
II. Pathology of judgments and conclusions.This group of disorders includes delusional, overvalued, obsessive and dominant ideas.
1. Crazy ideas - these are incorrect, false thoughts arising on painful grounds that cannot be corrected either by persuasion or in any other way. A collection of delusional ideas is called a delusion. Delusion always arises on a painful basis and disrupts the adaptation of a person to his environment; it follows not so much from knowledge and experience as from an internal, affective-mental state. The person is covered (emotionally involved) with a false belief, although it is unacceptable for other people of this culture or subculture (i.e. this belief is not a religious dogma or superstition). Thus, in the definition of delusional ideas, the following four points are the most significant: the false content of ideas, the painful basis for their occurrence, the conviction that they are correct, and the inaccessibility of psychological correction. Such a delusion is also called a primary delusion, and during its formation one can often notice a certain phasing - first a delusional mood, and then a delusional perception and interpretation external events followed by the "crystallization" of the crazy idea itself. With primary delirium, one can even talk about the patient's peculiar faith in his morbid ideas - he "feels" that he is right (similar to religious feelings or superstitions in healthy people). Primary delusion is a true thought disorder and cannot be understood in terms of the patient's cultural and educational status, which distinguishes it from other types of beliefs (normal belief, dominant or overvalued idea).
Unlike the primary secondary delusion understandable and explicable in combination with other psychopathological phenomena such as hallucinations or mood changes. For example, a patient who is convinced that he is being "poisoned by his neighbors" may initially receive this information from the "voices" he "hears".
2. Overvalued (delusional) ideas.They are judgments or a set of thoughts that one-sidedly reflect real circumstances and dominate in consciousness due to their special personal significance. The main distinguishing feature of an overvalued idea is that it is always based on some real fact, though very small, small. However, judgments and conclusions that have arisen on the basis of minor facts in the mind of the patient begin to be overestimated in their significance and take an undeservedly large place in life. Overvalued ideas, unlike delusional ones, never have the character of absurdity, and the patient can be dissuaded to some extent from them for a short time. In the practice of a general practitioner, the greatest difficulties in diagnosis and treatment are caused by overvalued ideas of some kind of somatic trouble, since they are really based on some minor disease, the significance of which is overestimated by the patient.
3. Intrusive ideas.Obsessive ideas are characterized by the appearance in the mind of relentless and intrusive thoughts, which the patient himself critically evaluates as painful, absurd and untrue, but their repeated occurrence cannot be eliminated. The fact of this irresistible obsession (obsession) is subjectively hard experienced by a person. Obsessions are quite often combined with obsessive actions (an irresistible need to perform some kind of action or deed). All types of obsessions can occur with a relatively rare disease (0.05% in the population) - obsessive-compulsive disorder (obsessive-compulsive disorder).
Distracted obsessions- fruitless philosophizing, obsessive counting and obsessive reproductions.
Fruitless philosophizing, or spiritual, mental chewing gum, rumination , is manifested by an obsessive desire again and again to resolve unnecessary or even meaningless questions (for example, the patient is forced to think why the right hand is called the right hand, and the left hand is called the left hand).
Obsessive counting (arithmania) is expressed by an annoying desire to count and keep in memory the number of steps taken, passers-by, poles, cars, to perform counting operations in the mind.
Obsessive reproductions - an annoying recall of forgotten or unnecessary terms, names, definitions, episodes from life. For example, onomatomania is the obsessive recall of various names.
figurative obsessions- these are mainly simple phobias (fears of a specific content), obsessive fears, ideas and memories, contrasting ideas and blasphemous thoughts, as well as obsessive drives to act (compulsions).
Phobias - in contrast to obsessive thoughts and actions, with phobias, i.e. obsessive fears of specific situations or objects, the patient does not experience anxiety and discomfort if he does not encounter frightening objects. However, they form restrictive behavior: the patient begins to avoid frightening situations when possible.
4 . dominant ideas.The dominant idea should be called such a thought that occupies an undeservedly large place in the mind of a person. Dominant ideas often occur in healthy people when they are intensely striving for something and focused on achieving the goal. Patients have different attitudes towards dominant ideas, but sometimes these ideas begin to weigh them down. Without doubting their correctness, the patient understands that they completely unlawfully possess him all the time. These ideas are painful not because they incorrectly reflect reality, but because some real fact has attracted stubborn attention for too long (the "sticking" of attention). Quite often in a psychiatric clinic, dominant ideas precede other morbid ideas, such as delusions.
- Practical part
Methodology "Individual styles of thinking" (A. Alekseeva, L. Gromova)
Target: determining the preferred way of thinking, as well as the manner in which questions are asked and decisions are made.
Instruction: There are no right or wrong answers to choose from. You will get the most useful information if you report as accurately as possible about the features of your real thinking, and not about how you think you should think.
Each item in this questionnaire consists of a statement, followed by five of its possible endings. Your task is to indicate the extent to which each ending applies to you. On the questionnaire, in the squares to the right of each ending, write down the numbers - 5.4, 3, 2 or 1, indicating the degree to which this ending applies to you: from 5 (most suitable) to 1 (least suitable). Each number (point) must be used only once. Each of the five endings in the group must receive a number.
Example
When I read a book in my specialty, I pay attention mainly to:
- quality of presentation, style;
- the main ideas of the book;
- composition and design of the book;
- logic and argumentation of the author;
- conclusions that can be drawn from the book.
If you are sure that you have understood the instructions above, continue to work on.
BUT. When there is a conflict of ideas between people, I prefer the side that:
- establishes, defines the conflict and tries to express it openly;
- best expresses the values and ideals involved;
- best reflects my personal views and experience;
- approaches the situation in the most logical and consistent way;
- presents arguments as concisely and convincingly as possible.
B. When I start working on a project as part of a team, the most important things for me are:
- understand the purpose and significance of this project;
- reveal the goals and values of the members of the working group;
- determine how we are going to develop this project;
- understand how this project can benefit our group;
- so that the work on the project was organized and moved forward.
IN. Generally speaking, I absorb new ideas best when I can:
- link them to current or future activities;
- apply them to specific situations;
- focus on them and analyze them carefully;
- understand how they are similar to the usual ideas;
- contrast them with other ideas.
G. For me, graphs, diagrams, drawings in books or articles usually:
- more useful than text if they are accurate;
- useful if they clearly show important facts;
- useful if they raise questions about the text;
- useful if they are supported and explained by the text;
- no more and no less useful than other materials.
D. If I was asked to do some research, I would probably start with...
- attempts to place it in a wider context;
- determining if I can do it alone I will need help;
- reflections and suggestions on possible outcomes;
- decisions about whether to conduct this study at all;
- attempts to formulate the problem as fully and precisely as possible.
E. If I had to collect information from the members of an organization regarding its current problems, I would prefer:
- meet with them individually and ask specific questions to each;
- hold a general meeting and ask them to express their opinions;
- interview them in small groups, asking general questions;
- meet informally with influential people and find out their views;
- ask the members of the organization to provide me (preferably in writing) with all relevant information that they have.
- withstood oppositions, withstood the resistance of opposing approaches;
- agrees with other things I believe;
- has been confirmed in practice;
- lends itself to logical and scientific proof;
- can be checked personally on the facts available to observation.
Z. When I read a magazine article in my spare time, it will most likely be:
- about how someone managed to solve a personal or social problem;
- is devoted to a debatable or social issue;
- a report on scientific or historical research;
- about an interesting, funny person or event;
- accurate, without a share of fiction, a message about someone's interesting life experience.
AND. When I read a job report, I pay attention to...
- closeness of conclusions to my personal experience;
- the possibility of implementing these recommendations;
- reliability and validity of the results with actual data;
- understanding by the author of the goals and objectives of the work;
- data interpretation.
TO. When I am given a task, the first thing I want to know is:
- what is the best method to solve this problem;
- who and when it is necessary that this task be solved;
- why this problem is worth solving;
- what impact the decision can have on other tasks that have to be solved;
- what is the direct, immediate benefit of solving this problem.
L. I usually learn the most about how to do something new by:
- I clarify for myself how it is connected with something else that is familiar to me;
- get down to business as early as possible;
- listening to different points of view on how to do it;
- there is someone showing me how to do it;
- carefully analyze how to do it in the best way.
M. If I had to take tests or take an exam, I would prefer:
- a set of objective, problem-oriented questions on the subject;
- discussion with those who are also being tested;
- oral presentation and demonstration of what I know;
- a free-form post about how I tried on what I learned.
- written report covering background, theory and method.
N. The people whose special qualities I respect the most are probably...
- prominent philosophers and scientists;
- writers and teachers;
- political and business leaders;
- economists and engineers;
- farmers and journalists.
ABOUT . Generally speaking, I find a theory useful if it...
- seems akin to those other theories and ideas which I have already assimilated;
- explains things in a way that is new to me;
- able to systematically explain many related situations;
- serves to clarify my personal experience and observations;
- has a specific practical application.
P . When I read a book (article) that is outside the scope of my immediate activity, I do it mainly because of...
- interest in improving their professional knowledge;
- indications on the part of a person I respect about its possible usefulness;
- desire to expand their general erudition;
- desire to go beyond their own activities for a change;
- desire to learn more about a particular subject.
R. When I read an article on a controversial issue, I prefer that it:
- the advantages for me were shown, depending on the chosen point of view;
- all the facts were stated during the discussion;
- logically and consistently outlined the controversial issues involved;
- the values that the author uses were determined;
- brightly lit on both sides controversial issue and the nature of the conflict.
FROM . When I first approach a technical problem, I'm more likely to:
- try to relate it to a larger problem or theory;
- look for ways and means to solve this problem;
- consider alternative ways to solve it;
- look for ways others may have already solved the problem;
- try to find the best procedure to solve it.
T. Generally speaking, I am most inclined to:
- find already existing methods that work and use them as best you can;
- puzzle over how heterogeneous methods might work together;
- discover new and better methods;
- find ways to make existing methods work better and in new ways;
- understand how and why existing methods should work.
Now, please transfer your answers to the appropriate boxes on the decoder sheet and add up the scores first in rows and then in columns, following the instructions on this form.
Rewrite your scores in the five blank boxes below.
So, the hardest work is over. Now it is necessary to evaluate the obtained results and give them a meaningful interpretation.
But first, check the quality of your work. Your five scores, written in the lettered boxes (C, I, P, A, R) at the bottom of the decoder form, should add up to 270 points.
Otherwise, you will have to check your "accounting": first - vertically, and then, if necessary, horizontally. If this does not help to find an error, one thing remains - to check the correctness of your answers (in the sense of following the instructions) for each item of the questionnaire. One way or another, it is necessary to achieve the fulfillment of the condition "C + I + P + A + P = 270".
As you may have guessed, letters are nothing but the initial letters of the names of thinking styles.
C - synthetic style
I - idealistic style
P - pragmatic style
A - analytical style
R - realistic style
Synthetic stylethinking manifests itself in creating something new, original, combining dissimilar, often opposite ideas, views, and carrying out thought experiments. The motto of the Synthesizer is "What if ...". Synthesizers strive to create the broadest possible, generalized concept that allows you to combine different approaches, "remove" contradictions, reconcile opposing positions. This is a theorized style of thinking, such people like to formulate theories and build their conclusions on the basis of theories, they like to notice contradictions in other people's reasoning and draw the attention of people around them, they like to sharpen the contradiction and try to find a fundamentally new solution that integrates opposing views, they tend to see the world constantly changing and love change, often for change's sake.
Idealistic stylethinking is manifested in a tendency to intuitive, global assessments without a detailed analysis of problems. A feature of Idealists is an increased interest in goals, needs, human values, moral issues; they take into account subjective and social factors in their decisions, strive to smooth out contradictions and emphasize similarities in various positions, easily perceive various ideas and proposals without internal resistance, successfully solve such problems where emotions, feelings, assessments and other subjective moments are important factors, sometimes utopically striving to reconcile and unite everyone and everything. "Where are we going and why?" - the classic question of the Idealists.
Pragmatic style thinking is based on direct personal experience, on the use of those materials and information that are easily available, striving to get a specific result (albeit limited), a practical gain as soon as possible. The motto of the Pragmatists is: “Something will work”, “Anything that works will do”. The behavior of Pragmatists may seem superficial, chaotic, but they adhere to the principle: events in this world happen inconsistently, and everything depends on random circumstances, so in an unpredictable world you just need to try: “Today we will do this, and then we'll see ...” Pragmatists feel good conjuncture, supply and demand, successfully determine the tactics of behavior, using the existing circumstances in their favor, showing flexibility and adaptability.
Analytical stylethinking is focused on a systematic and comprehensive consideration of an issue or problem in those aspects that are set by objective criteria, it is inclined to a logical, methodical, thorough (with an emphasis on details) manner of solving problems. Before making a decision, analysts develop a detailed plan and try to collect as much information as possible, objective facts, using deep theories. They perceive the world as logical, rational, orderly and predictable, therefore they tend to look for a formula, method or system that can give a solution to a particular problem and is amenable to rational justification.
Realistic stylethinking is focused only on the recognition of facts, and “real” is only that which can be directly felt, personally seen or heard, touched, etc. Realistic thinking is characterized by concreteness and an attitude towards correcting, correcting situations in order to achieve a certain result. The problem for Realists is whenever they see something is wrong and want to fix it.
Thus, it can be noted that the individual style of thinking affects the ways of solving problems, the ways of behavior, and the personal characteristics of a person.
If you scored between 60 and 65 for any style of thinking, it means that you have a moderate preference for that style(s). In other words, other things being equal, you will be more likely to use this style (or styles) more (or more often) than others.
If you scored between 66 and 71, then you have a strong preference for that style (or styles) of thinking.
You probably use this style systematically, consistently, and in most situations.
If, on the other hand, your score for a certain style was 72 or more, then you have a very strong preference for that style of thinking. In fact, you are devoted to him.
Now, if you get one or more high marks in some styles of thinking, you are bound to have one or more low marks in other styles. Then, if your score for any style is between 43 and 48 points, you are characterized by moderate neglect of this style of thinking. That is, ceteris paribus, you, if possible, will avoid it when solving problems that are significant to you.
If you scored from 37 to 42 points, you most likely have a persistent disregard for this style of thinking. Finally, if your score is 36 or less, this style is completely foreign to you, you probably don't use it almost anywhere and never, even if it is the best approach to the problem under the circumstances.
- Test tasks
1. Thinking includes the following operations, except:
- analysis;
- abstractions;
- separation;
- generalizations.
2. Features that impede creative thinking are the following, except:
- tendencies to conformism;
- the ability to see an object from a new angle of view;
- rigidity of thinking;
- internal censorship.
3. Thinking is most closely associated with the following mental processes:
- emotions
- imagination
- will
- speech
- Attention
4. The operations of thinking include:
- analysis
- retention (preservation)
- generalization
- reproduction
- abstraction
- specification
5. The operation of the thinking process, which requires the ability to highlight the essential features of objects:
- Generalization
- abstraction
- Classifications
- inference
6. Violations of the mobility of thinking include:
- Accelerated Thinking
- Detailed thinking
- Viscous thinking
- slow thinking
- Detailed thinking
7. Paralogical thinking is:
- Complete lack of logical connection between associations
- Violation of the formation of logical connections between associations
- The purpose of the reasoning "eludes" the patient, which leads to "reasoning" on an unimportant occasion, idle talk
8. The type of thinking, which is characterized by reliance on ideas, i.e. secondary images of objects and phenomena of reality, and also operates with visual images of objects:
- Visual and effective
- Visual-figurative
- abstract-logical
9. Reliance in thinking on latent signs, revealed during the "pictogram" technique, indicates the presence of:
10. Prolonged and irreversible impairment of any mental function, general development mental abilities or characteristic way of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes up an individual is called:
- insanity
- mental retardation
- defect
- dementia
- personality degradation
11. Fruitless, aimless thinking based on a violation of thinking is called:
- demagogy
- rhetoric
- ambivalence
- autistic thinking
- reasoning
12. With introversion, unlike autism, as a rule, it is noted:
- being critical of one's own
- less pronounced closure
- no hallucinations
- lack of crazy ideas
- uncritical to one's own isolation
13. Inference refers to:
- mental operations
- thought processes
- thinking factors
- thinking types
- thinking mechanisms
14. Reducing the level of generalizations and distortion of the generalization process refers to:
- disturbances in the dynamics of thought processes
- violations of the operational side of thinking
- violations of the personal component of thinking
- violations of the process of external mediation of cognitive activity
- violations of the process of self-regulation of cognitive activity
15. Disorder of thinking, in which the formation of new associations is significantly (maximally) difficult due to the long-term dominance of one thought, representation is called:
- inertia
- reasoning
- perseveration
- slipping
- diversity
16. Logophobia occurs when:
- schizophrenia
- diabetes
- stuttering
- hyperkinetic syndrome
- autism
17. Emotional-volitional disorders, violations of the structure and hierarchy of motives, inadequacy of self-esteem and the level of claims, impaired thinking in the form of "relative affective dementia", impaired prediction and reliance on past experience are included in the structure:
- schizophrenic symptom complex
- neurotic symptom complex
- psychopathic symptom complex
- organic symptom complex
- oligophrenic symptom complex
18. Cancerophobia is:
- obsessive fear of getting cancer
- obsessive fear of getting any cancer
- super-valuable idea that a person has a cancerous tumor
- delusional idea that a person has a cancerous tumor
- the dominant idea that a person has a cancerous tumor
19. Placebo effect associated with:
- parameters medicinal substance
- psychological attitude
- the duration of the stimulus
- drug addiction
- surprise factor
20. Iatrogenic diseases are diseases:
- caused by pathological forms of imagination
- arising under the influence of a careless word of a doctor
Location: classroom
Lesson duration: 2 hours.
Target: To study the processes of thinking, imagination, speech. Disassemble the main types, types, forms and functions of thinking, imagination and speech. To teach to differentiate normal and pathological thinking, imagination and speech.
The student must know:
- Definition of the concepts "thinking", "imagination", "speech".
- Types, forms, methods, operations, individual features of thinking.
- Development of thinking in ontogeny. Laws of logic and thinking.
- Thinking disorders. Pathopsychological and clinical classification of thinking disorders.
- Types of imagination. Iatrogenic.
- Pathological forms of imagination.
- Types and functions of speech. Relationship between thought and speech.
- Speech disorders.
The student must be able to:
- Explore thinking. To be able to differentiate normal and pathological thinking. Diagnose disorders of thinking and imagination.
- Investigate speech disorders.
- To carry out the methodology of A. Alekseeva, L. Gromova to determine individual styles of thinking.
Themes of projects, abstracts.
- Theoretical and experimental approaches to the study of thinking research.
- Features of impaired thinking in brain lesions.
- The role of clinical thinking for medical professionals.
- Disturbances in the development of thinking in children.
- Influence of doctor-patient communication on the dynamics of treatment.
- Using the features of a person's imagination for the purposes of psychodiagnostics.
- Speech. Types of speech. Violation of the formation of speech.
- Imagination. Types of imagination. Pathological forms of imagination.
- Iatrogenic.
Main literature:
- Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V. Clinical psychology: textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2008. - 880 p.: illustration.
- Clinical Psychology: Textbook / Ed. B.D. Karvasarsky. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
- Mendelevich V.D. Clinical and medical psychology: A practical guide. - M.: MED - press, 2001. - 592 p.
- Psychology. Dictionary / Under the general. ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M., 1990.
Additional literature:
- Lakosina N.D. Clinical psychology. Proc. for medical students. - M.: MED press-inform, 2003.
- Lakosina N.R., Ushakov G.K. Textbook on medical psychology. - L., 1976.
- Medical psychology: the latest reference book of a practical psychologist / compiled by S.L. Solovyov. - M., 2006.
- Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology: in 2 volumes. - T.1. - M., 1989.
- Nemov "Psychology". - M., 2002.
Initial knowledge level control:
- Define thinking, imagination and speech.
- What types and forms of thinking do you know?
- How is thinking related to other mental processes?
- How does thinking affect imagination and speech?
- What influence do you think emotions have on thinking?
- What causes can lead to a violation of the processes of thinking, imagination and speech?
- What disorders of the functions of thinking, imagination and speech do you know?
- How do you think, how do underdevelopment of the visual, auditory and speech apparatus affect the formation and development of thinking, imagination and speech?
The main questions of the topic:
- Definition of the concept of "thinking". Basic mental operations: analysis and synthesis, comparison (comparison and distinction), abstraction (distraction), generalization, concretization, systematization (classification).
- Types of thinking: concrete-effective, visual-effective (practical), visual-figurative, abstract-logical (sign-symbolic, verbal-logical), creative (creative) thinking.
- The main forms of abstract thinking: concept (category, definition of the concept), judgment, conclusion.
- Methods of thinking: deduction, induction and analogy and their corresponding inferences. Mechanical-associative and logical-associative types of thinking.
- Thinking strategies: random, rational and systematic enumeration. Stages of preparation and incubation in thinking.
- Individual characteristics of thinking: breadth and depth, consistency, flexibility, independence, critical thinking.
- Development of thinking in ontogenesis, stages and age periodization, classification, works by J. Piaget, L.S. Vygodsky, P.Ya. Galperin and others.
- Methods for the study of thinking.
- The basic laws of logic and their role in the study of the phenomenon of thinking in a person in the norm, in borderline conditions and in pathology.
- Pathology of thinking. Clinical and pathopsychological classification of thinking disorders.
- Imagination, normal and pathological forms, the role of imagination in the development of the psyche, active and passive imagination, fantasies, age-related sexual and social aspects.
- Speech and thinking. Facial expressions and pantomime in speech. Oral and written speech, stages of speech development. Speech pathology.
Final control of the level of knowledge:
- Define thinking. Types of thinking and forms of thinking?
- What integral characteristics describe the individual characteristics of thinking?
- Why do patients with neuroses tend to think, which is usually referred to as catathymic?
- How, during the conversation, to reveal the safety of the mental operation of generalization or abstraction in a patient with suspected oligophrenia?
- Why are dreams classified as forms of passive imagination? Can dreams be deliberately caused by a person?
- What is the difference between productive imagination and reproductive imagination?
- What are iatrogenic diseases? How is iatrogenic prophylaxis carried out?
- How are the features of a person's imagination used for the purposes of psychodiagnostics?
- How do psychotic fantasies differ from non-psychotic fantasies?
- Define speech. How are speech and language related?
- What is inner speech? How is it formed in ontogenesis, what functions does it perform?
- What is the difference between expressive and impressive speech?
- What is the difference between tracing speech and colloquial gestural speech of deaf and dumb people?
- The disappearance of the need for communication is the main symptom of autism. What is reverse autism and what are the symptoms?
- What is the main feature that distinguishes aphasia from alalia?
- What is meant by the concepts of left hemisphere and right hemisphere thinking?
- What are the differences between convergent and divergent thinking?
- How is the phenomenon of diversity of thinking manifested in the subject version of the classification methodology?
- What are the main differences between the overvalued and obsessive ideas of jealousy, heart disease?
- How is the assessment of the pathology of children's lying carried out?
- What individual phenomena of children's fantasizing should be alarming in terms of the possibility of a child having a mental illness?
- What is the name of the lack of pronunciation of the letter "r"? what group of disorders do dyslalias belong to?
Thinking- the mental process of reflecting the most essential properties of objects and phenomena of reality, as well as the most significant connections and relationships between them, which ultimately leads to obtaining new knowledge about the world.
Operations of the thinking process
Mental activity arises and proceeds in the form of special mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concretization and systematization) with a subsequent transition to the formation of concepts.
Analysis- mental division of the whole into parts. It is based on the desire to know the whole deeper by studying each of its parts. There are two types of analysis: analysis as a mental decomposition of the whole into parts and analysis as a mental separation of its individual features or aspects as a whole.
Synthesis- mental connection of parts into a single whole. Just as in analysis, two types of synthesis are distinguished: synthesis as a mental union of parts of the whole and synthesis as a mental combination of various features, aspects, properties of objects and phenomena of reality.
Comparison- mental establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena, their properties or qualitative features.
Abstraction (distraction)- mental selection of essential properties or features while abstracting from non-essential properties; signs of objects and phenomena. To think abstractly means to be able to extract some moment, side, feature or property of a cognizable object and consider them without connection with other features of the same object.
Generalization- mental association of objects or phenomena on the basis of properties and features that are common and essential for them, the process of reducing less general concepts to more general ones.
Specification- mental selection from the general one or another particular particular property or feature, otherwise - a mental transition from generalized knowledge to a single, specific case.
Systematization (classification)- mental distribution of objects or phenomena into groups or subgroups depending on similarities and differences (categories division by essential feature).
All mental operations (actions) do not occur in isolation, but in various combinations.
Types of thinking
There are three main types of thinking that appear sequentially in the process of ontogenesis: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical.
Visual-effective (practical) thinking- a type of thinking that relies on direct sensory impressions of objects and phenomena of reality, i.e. their primary image (sensations and perceptions). In this case, a real, practical transformation of the situation takes place in the process of specific actions with specific objects. This kind of thinking can exist only in conditions of direct perception of the field of manipulation.
Visual-figurative thinking- a type of thinking, which is characterized by reliance on ideas, i.e. secondary images of objects and phenomena of reality, and also operates with visual images of objects (drawing, diagram, plan). Unlike visual-effective thinking, here the situation is transformed only in terms of its internal (subjective) image, but at the same time it becomes possible to select the most unusual and even incredible combinations of both the objects themselves and their properties. Visual-figurative thinking is the basis for the formation of verbal and logical thinking.
Abstract-logical (abstract, verbal, theoretical) thinking- a kind of thinking that relies on abstract concepts and logical actions with them. With visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking, mental operations are carried out with the information that sensory knowledge gives us in the form of direct perception of specific objects and their images-representations. Abstract-logical thinking, thanks to abstraction, allows you to create an abstract and generalized picture of the situation in the form of thoughts, i.e. concepts, judgments and conclusions that are expressed in words.
These types of thinking develop in the process of ontogenesis sequentially from the subject-active to the conceptual.
The thinking of an adult person includes signs of all three types: subject-effective, visual-figurative and conceptual. The ratio of these types of thinking is determined not only by age, but also by individual characteristics and is associated with the dominance of one of the hemispheres. The predominance of effective and visual-figurative thinking is typical for people with a dominant activation of the right hemisphere, such people are more successful in technical activities, they are better at geometry and drawing, they are prone to artistic activities. Individuals with dominance of the left hemisphere have a higher success rate in theoretical, verbal-logical thinking, they are more successful in mathematics (algebra), and scientific activities. In the practical activity of an adult, there is a constant transition from practical to figurative and logical thinking and vice versa. Developed practical thinking is characterized by “the ability to quickly understand a difficult situation and almost instantly find the right solution”, that is, what is usually called intuition.
intuitive thinking is characterized by the speed of flow, the absence of clearly defined stages, low awareness, in contrast to discursive, step-by-step expanded, conscious thinking. The high speed of intuitive problem solving is due to the restructuring of the processes of logical and figurative thinking. It acquires special significance in difficult situations of activity (complexity of the situation, lack of time, the need to take into account the opposing forces, high responsibility for every decision). It is these parameters that characterize the work of a doctor. Therefore, in the practical activity of a doctor, all these types of thinking act in unity.
Creative and critical thinking. If we consider thinking from the point of view of novelty, originality of the problem being solved, then we can distinguish between creative (productive, divergent, creative) and reproducing (reproductive, convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is thinking, the result of which is the discovery of a fundamentally new or improvement in the solution of a problem. Guilford, a well-known researcher of creative thinking, identified four main factors of creativity.
1. Originality characterizes the originality of creative thinking, the unusual approach to the problem, the ability to give non-standard answers.
2. Flexibility - the ability for a variety of answers, for quick switching.
3. Integration as the ability to simultaneously take into account several opposing conditions, sub-conditions or principles.
4. Sensitivity as the ability to notice subtle details, similarities or differences.
Studying creative thinking, Torrance found that the peak of creativity is observed in childhood (from 3.5 to 4.5 years), then it increases in the first three years of schooling and in the prepubertal period. Subsequently, there is a downward trend.
Conformity (the desire to be like everyone else, the fear of standing out. That is why there is internal censorship - a person rejects everything that may not be accepted by other people) acts as obstacles to creative thinking, often unconsciously; rigidity - the desire of thinking to follow the beaten path, solve problems in the usual ways, excessively high motivation, the desire to find an answer immediately also often makes a person use the first solution that comes to mind, which, as a rule, is not innovative.
Critical thinking- verification of the proposed hypotheses in order to determine the area of their possible application. It can be said that creative thinking creates new ideas, while critical thinking reveals their shortcomings and defects.
Based on all that has been said, when describing thinking, one can distinguish its following qualities: depth-superficiality; latitude-narrowness; speed-slowness; flexibility-rigidity; originality-triviality.
Basic forms of thinking
Concepts, judgments and inferences are the main forms with which mental operations are performed in abstract thinking. concept- a form of thinking that reflects the most general and essential features, properties of an object or phenomenon of the objective world, expressed in a word. Concepts are based on our knowledge of these objects or phenomena. It is customary to distinguish between general and singular concepts.
General concepts are those that cover a whole class of homogeneous objects or phenomena that bear the same name. General concepts reflect the features inherent in all objects that are united by the corresponding concept.
Any general concepts arise only on the basis of individual objects and phenomena. The path of concept formation is the movement from the particular to the general, i.e. through generalization.
The basis for the formation of concepts is practice. Very often, when we lack practical experience, some of our concepts are distorted. They may be unreasonably narrowed or expanded. It should be distinguished IT concepts, which are formed through personal practical experience. The prevailing place in them is occupied by visual-figurative connections. Scientific concepts, which are formed with the leading participation of formal-logical operations, their definition is formed through generic differences.
In logical terms only comparable concepts can be found. Diagnostic errors of a doctor can be associated with a violation of the logic of thinking in terms of, for example, a specific disease - an overly broad or too narrow understanding of the content and scope of the concept of it, replacing the definition of an illness with its description listing individual symptoms.
To master a concept means not only to be able to name its features, even if they are very numerous, but also to be able to apply the concept in practice, i.e. know how to operate it. One of the most important moments in the assimilation of a concept is its awareness. Sometimes, using a concept, we do not fully understand its meaning. Therefore, awareness of a concept can be considered as the highest step in the formation of concepts, as a link connecting the concept and understanding.
Judgment- a form of thinking that reflects the relationship between concepts, expressed as an affirmation or negation. If the concept reflects the totality of the essential features of objects, lists them, then the judgment reflects their connections and relationships. Usually a judgment (for example: The rose is red) consists of two concepts - two terms of the judgment: subject (from Latin subjectum - subject), i.e. that, in relation to which something is affirmed or denied in the judgment, and the predicate (from lat. praedicatum - predicate), i.e. verbal expression of affirmation or negation.
In general judgments, something is affirmed or denied regarding all objects of a given class or group (for example: All fish breathe with gills). In private, judgments, this refers to some representatives of a class or group (for example: Some students are excellent students). A single judgment is called, in which something is affirmed or denied about one subject (for example: This building is an architectural monument). Any judgment can be either true or false, i.e. correspond or not correspond to reality.
In the process of our operating with various judgments using certain mental operations, another form of thinking arises - inference.
inference- this is a form of thinking, by means of which a new judgment (conclusion) is derived from one or more judgments (premisses). Inference is the highest form of thinking and is the formation of new judgments based on the transformation of existing ones. Inference as a form of thinking is based on concepts and judgments and is most often used in the processes of theoretical thinking.
Any conclusion consists of premises, conclusion and conclusion. The premises of an inference are the original judgments from which a new judgment is derived. This new judgment, obtained logically from the premises, is called the conclusion. And the very logical transition from the premises to the conclusion is the conclusion. The relationship of logical consequence between the premises and the conclusion presupposes a connection between the premises in terms of content. If the judgments are not related in content, then the conclusion from them is impossible. If there is a meaningful connection between the premises, we can obtain new true knowledge in the process of reasoning, subject to two conditions: the premises must be true and certain rules of inference must be observed - methods of thinking.
Methods of thinking
Inference is the most complex form and product of thinking. It is based on the data of a series of judgments and is carried out by reasoning. There are three main methods (methods) for obtaining inferences in reasoning: deduction, induction and analogy.
deductive reasoning- the course of reasoning when obtaining a conclusion goes from more general knowledge to particular (from general to singular), here the transition from general knowledge to particular is logically necessary.
inductive reasoning- reasoning goes from particular knowledge to general provisions. Here, an empirical generalization takes place, when, on the basis of the recurrence of a feature, it is concluded that it belongs to all the phenomena of this class.
Inference by analogy- makes it possible in reasoning a logical transition from known knowledge about a separate subject to new knowledge about another separate subject based on the likening of one phenomenon to another (from a single case to similar single cases or from particular to particular, bypassing the general).
Types of thinking
The first attempts to highlight the specifics of thinking go back to the associative direction in psychology, where the main feature of thinking is its purposeful and productive nature. Within this area, there are mechanical-associative And logical-associative types of thinking.
Mechanical-associative type of thinking - associations are formed mainly according to the laws of contiguity, similarity or contrast. Here there is no clear goal of thinking, i.e. that special regulator that ensures the selection of the necessary material and the formation of causal associations. Such "free" (chaotic-mechanical) association can be observed in sleep (this often explains the bizarreness of some dream images), as well as with a decrease in the level of wakefulness (with fatigue of the disease).
Logical-associative thinking - Differs in purposefulness and value. For this, a regulator of associations is always needed - the goal of thinking. X. Lipman (1904) used an abstract concept to designate this goal - "guiding ideas". They direct associations, which leads to the selection (on a subconscious level) of the necessary material for the formation of semantic associations. Guiding ideas are, in the words of E. Kretschmer (1888-1964), the magnet that keeps related ideas in the field of consciousness. This kind of thinking requires apperception with a certain focus on the goal of thinking.
Our ordinary thinking consists of both logical-associative (apperceptive) and mechanical-associative thinking. We have the first with concentrated intellectual activity, the second with fatigue.
Individual features of thinking
All the above differences in the mental activity of people (type, type and strategies of thinking) determine the individual characteristics of the thinking of each individual person. They develop in the process of life, activity and are largely determined by the conditions of training and education. The typological properties of a person's higher nervous activity, his affective sphere, and the features of functional interhemispheric interaction are also important. Individual features of thinking determine such integral characteristics as the breadth and depth of thinking, its consistency, flexibility, independence and criticality. The listed features of thinking in different people are combined and expressed in different ways, which characterizes the individual characteristics of their thinking as a whole.
breadth of mind It manifests itself in the outlook of a person and is characterized by the versatility of knowledge, the ability to think creatively and consider any issue in the variety of its connections with other phenomena, the ability to broad generalizations.
depth of mind It is expressed in the ability to penetrate into the essence of the issue, the ability to see the problem, highlight the main thing in it and foresee the consequences of the decision. The quality opposite to the depth of thinking is the superficiality of judgments and conclusions, when a person pays attention to the little things and does not see the main thing.
Sequence of thinking expressed in the ability to establish a logical order in solving various issues. Quick thinking is the ability to quickly assess the situation, quickly think and make decisions, and easily switch to solving different problems.
Flexibility of thinking expressed in its freedom from the shackling influence of existing stereotypes, the ability to find non-traditional solutions depending on changes in the situation.
Independence of thinking It is expressed in the ability of a person to put forward new questions and tasks, to find new ways to solve them independently, without outside help. Such thinking is not amenable to inspiring extraneous influence.
Critical thinking- this is a person's ability to objectively evaluate their own and other people's judgments, the ability to abandon their statements that do not correspond to reality, to subject the proposals and judgments of other people to critical consideration.
Development of thinking in ontogeny
For a long time, the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (Piaget J., 1966) has been studying the child psychology of thinking. He considered the development of thinking as a spontaneous, regularly occurring transition from external actions to internal mental operations. The studies of J. Piaget and his psychological school show the qualitative originality of children's thinking, a special children's logic that differs from that of an adult, and it is traced how thinking gradually changes its character as the child grows up.
At a very early age, the child is forced to motorize each action in order to solve the problems facing him. During this period of action, it is still maximally deployed, they contain many visible components. With age, they change under the influence coagulation: action components are qualitatively transformed and their number decreases. At some stage of age development, it becomes possible for them to dive and transformation into mental operations (interiorization). Thus, at first the child learns the world in actions, then in images, then a symbolic representation of the world is formed in him through language and abstract thinking.
Piaget identifies four stages in the cognitive development of children:
1. Stage of sensory-motor operations (sensory-motor intelligence)- actions with specific, sensually perceived material: objects, their images, lines, figures of various shapes, sizes and colors. This stage continues in children up to 2 years of age and is free from the use of language; there are no presentations. All behavior and intellectual acts of the child are focused on the coordination of perception and movements (hence the name "sensory-motor"), the formation of "sensory-motor schemes" of objects is underway, the first skills are formed, and the constancy of perception is established.
2. Stage of pre-operational intelligence (2-7 years)- characterized by formed speech, ideas, internalization of action into thought (action is replaced by some kind of sign: word, image, symbol). If earlier the child performed various external actions in order to achieve the goal, now he can already combine the schemes of actions in his mind and suddenly come to the right decision.
This stage of intellectual development is called representative intelligence- thinking with the help of representations. A strong figurative beginning with insufficient development of verbal thinking leads to a kind of childish logic. At the stage of preoperational representations, the child is not capable of proof, reasoning. The mastery of concepts and logic in children is formed gradually - in the process of operating objects and in learning.
All the features of the early (pre-conceptual) form of thinking J. Piaget explains by the phenomenon inherent in young children childish egocentrism- the child's idea that everything around him is related to him, perceives the world as his continuation, which makes sense only in terms of meeting needs. Egocentrism is a special intellectual position of the child. He is not yet able to freely perform transformations of the reference system, the beginning of which is rigidly connected with himself, with his "I". All this does not allow children under 5 years of age to correctly understand situations that require the adoption of someone else's position, to coordinate different points of view.
J. Piaget distinguishes three main levels of egocentrism:
- lack of distinction between subject and object by a child under 1.5 years old;
- insufficient distinction between one's own and someone else's point of view by a child under 7-8 years old, which gives rise to such features of a preschooler's thinking as syncretism or animism;
- a teenager's belief in the limitless possibilities of his own thinking and the ability to transform the world around him (11-14 years old).
3. Stage of specific operations(8-11 years old) - characterized by the awareness of the reversibility and symmetry of relationships by overcoming egocentrism. The stage of specific operations is associated with the ability to reason, prove, correlate different points of view. Logical operations, however, need to be based on visibility, they cannot be performed in a hypothetical plan (therefore they are called concrete). All logical operations depend on specific applications. In particular, the child can already form both relations and classes from concrete objects. If at the age of 7 the child manages to arrange the sticks along their length, then only at the age of 9.5 he does a similar operation with body weights, and with volumes - only at 11-12 years. Logical operations have not yet become generalized for the child.
4. Stage of formal operations(12-15 years old) - a teenager is freed from a specific attachment to objects given in the field of perception, which characterizes the completion of the formation of logical thinking. A teenager acquires the ability to think in the same way as an adult, i.e. hypothetically, deductively. This stage is characterized by operating with logical relations, relative concepts, abstraction and generalizations. The entry of a teenager into the stage of formal logical operations causes in him a hypertrophied attraction to general theories, a desire for "theorizing", which, according to J. Piaget, is an age-related feature of adolescents. For adolescents, the general becomes more important and essential than particulars, they tend to create their own theories in politics or philosophy. Syllogisms become the basis for the operations of logical thinking at this age.
In our country, the theory of the formation and development of intellectual operations, proposed by P.Ya. Galperin. This theory was based on the idea of a genetic dependence between internal intellectual operations and external practical actions. He talked about the existence of a gradual formation of thinking. In his works, Galperin singled out the stages of internalization of external actions, determined the conditions that ensure the successful transfer of external actions into internal ones. Galperin believed that the development of thinking at different stages is directly related to objective activity, to the manipulation of objects. However, the transfer of external actions into internal ones with their transformation into certain mental operations does not occur immediately, but in stages.
- The first stage is characterized by the formation of an indicative basis for future action. The main function of this stage is to get acquainted in practice with the composition of the future action, as well as with the requirements that this action must ultimately meet.
- The second stage of the formation of mental action is associated with its practical development, which is carried out with the use of objects.
- The third stage is connected with the continuation of the development of a given action, but without relying on real objects. At this stage, the action is transferred from the external, visual-figurative plan to the internal plan. The main feature of this stage is the use of external speech as a substitute for manipulating real objects. Galperin believed that the transfer of an action to a speech plan means, first of all, the speech performance of a certain objective action, and not its voicing.
- At the fourth stage of mastering mental action, external speech is abandoned. The transfer of the external speech execution of the action entirely into internal speech is carried out. A specific action is performed "silently".
- At the fifth stage, the action is carried out entirely on the internal plane, with appropriate reductions and transformations. With the subsequent withdrawal of the performance of this action from the sphere of consciousness (i.e., constant control over its implementation) into the sphere of intellectual skills and abilities.
Conceptual thinking comes to replace pre-conceptual thinking gradually, through a series of intermediate stages, L.S. Vygodsky (1982) identified five stages in the transition to the formation of concepts:
- a child of 2-3 years old is a vivid syncretism (an operation that replaces analysis and synthesis for a child), which manifests itself in the fact that when asked to put similar objects together, the child puts any of them together, believing that those placed nearby are suitable;
- a child of 2-6 years old - chains of pairwise similarity appear in the classification of objects, i.e. it shows elements of objective similarity of two objects, but already the third object may differ from the two previous ones;
- a child of 7-10 years old - can unite a group of objects by similarity, but is not yet able to recognize and name the main features of the entire group;
- a child of 11-14 years old - conceptual thinking appears, but still imperfect, since the primary concepts are formed on the basis of everyday experience and are not supported by scientific knowledge;
- adolescence - the use of theoretical provisions allows you to go beyond everyday experience and correctly determine the boundaries of the class-concept.
According to many psychologists, the formation of logic also usually requires special training.
The study of thinking
Already in the course of a purposeful conversation, we can assess the features of the patient's thought process, delve into the essence of individual operations, identify clinically delineated violations of the flow of associations or pathological ideas (delusional, overvalued, obsessive). You should pay attention to the pace of thinking, the activity of performing mental operations. When thinking is accelerated, it is characterized by increased distractibility, superficiality of associations, ease of switching from one topic to another, a "leap of ideas". In the case of slow thinking processes, patients slowly move from one judgment to another, conclusions are formed slowly, associations arise with difficulty, switching from one topic to another is difficult.
In addition to questioning and evaluating behavior, experimental psychological methods are of great importance in the study of thinking. But without knowledge of the patient's personal characteristics, a correct assessment of the results of an experimental study of thinking is very difficult. There are a large number of experimental psychological methods that can be used to investigate various aspects of impaired thinking.
The pace and flow of associations. From a physiological point of view, the study of associations is nothing but the study of temporary connections formed in past life experience. They are reproduced under the influence of stimulus words and are expressed in speech reactions. This technique is suitable for studying the rate of formation of associative links (the pace of thinking), the development of the processes of generalization and abstraction, as well as other features of thinking and the personality as a whole.
In the most common classical version of the associative experiment, the patient is asked to immediately respond to each word proposed by the experimenter with the first word that comes to mind.
Usually a set of 20-60 words is offered: the answer is recorded, as well as the time between the word of the researcher and the response of the patient (latent period, normally equal to 1.5-2 s).
Classification - an operation of the thinking process that requires the ability to identify the essential features of objects.
The technique is aimed primarily at the study of thinking (the processes of generalization and abstraction, the sequence of conclusions, etc.), but it also makes it possible to analyze the criticality and deliberation of the patient's actions, the volume and stability of his attention, personal reactions to his achievements and failures.
The technique is applicable to the study of children and adults of any educational level. However, for the study of children up to the 3rd-4th grade of the school and semi-literate adults, part of the cards should be excluded (measuring instruments, teaching aids). It is proposed to sort (classify) 70 cards with color and black-and-white images of various objects, people, animals, plants, justifying your decision.
The technique allows to identify reduction of the process of generalization, which is typical for patients with oligophrenia and epilepsy. Specific thinking, which is characteristic of oligophrenia, is determined in cases where the subject combines objects into purely specific situational groups (for example, a coat with a wardrobe, "because the coat is hanging in the closet").
Tendency to detail, characteristic of patients with epilepsy, is determined in cases where the subject identifies groups correctly, but splits them too much (for example, “home and going out clothes”, “upholstered furniture and kitchen furniture”). It is necessary to distinguish from excessive detailing such an execution of the task, when there are also many groups, but this is not due to fragmentation, but to the presence groups of the same name. This will already be a manifestation of forgetfulness, absent-mindedness, narrowing the scope of attention, which happens with vascular and other organic diseases of the brain.
The technique is very sensitive to identifying specific disorders of thinking characteristic of patients with schizophrenia: distortion of generalization processes, actualization of random associations, diversity of thinking, and some others. The main thing that can be noted in these cases is that patients begin to put together some groups in an extremely generalized way, while others in an excessively detailed way. This alone can be regarded as thought inconsistency, most common in schizophrenia. A similar phenomenon can sometimes be found in organic diseases of the brain, but only during an exacerbation of psychopathological disorders.
There are a number of modifications of the classification methodology: the classification of geometric shapes, special tasks for the exclusion of concepts, the allocation of essential features of objects.
Methodology "Exclusion of objects (concepts)" - the ability to distinguish between heterogeneous concepts is assessed. The subject must exclude from the group “extra” of four or five objects (for example: “table, mortar, bed, floor, cupboard"; "decrepit, old, worn out, little, decrepit"). Sometimes cards with pictures (words) are specially introduced into the task, where it is impossible to make such an exception and generalization. Healthy subjects in such cases declare that the task is impossible, and patients with schizophrenia easily combine objects into a group using a “weak”, latent sign of one or another object.
Methodology "Identification of essential features of objects (concepts)" - allows you to judge the quality of understanding of the main and secondary features of objects and phenomena. Tasks are offered where the subject must highlight the essential features of the key concept, emphasizing the features without which this concept does not exist (for example, "Garden:plants, gardener, dog, fence, Earth" or "River,Coast, fish, angler, mud, water»).
Understanding the figurative meaning of proverbs . To study the processes of abstraction, the patient can be offered tasks to understand the figurative meaning of proverbs or understand the content of plot pictures and short stories (including those with absurdities). Here, an essential role in the overall evaluation of the results is played by the attitude of the subject to the mistakes made - whether he notices them on his own, or only with the help of the experimenter. At the same time, it is required to know how he motivates erroneous decisions and how much they are available for correction.
Formation of artificial concepts (method of double stimulation). The subject is offered two rows of stimuli: one row plays the role of an object to which the behavior is directed, the other - the role of a sign with which the behavior is organized. For example, there is a set of volumetric geometric shapes, different in shape, size and color. On the reverse side of the figures, words unfamiliar to the subject (“oks”, “nur”, etc.) are written. It is required after several trials to find all the figures with the given words. Pay attention to how many such samples were needed for the subject to form an artificial concept, i.e. the sign on which the selection was made. Sometimes, while correctly recognizing the figures, the subject cannot correctly name their common features, which may indicate the weakness of the processes of generalization and distraction at the verbal level. Thus, the subject of study in this experiment is not only the process of comparing and generalizing figures, but also the influence of the word (sign) on this process, denoting the desired combination of features.
The study of logical connections and relationships between concepts - the methodology of education is applied paired analogies in pictorial and verbal versions, where, in accordance with the sample (pair of words), a new pair is selected, similar in terms of the feature presented in the sample. For example: school/training; hospital/(doctor, student, institution, treatment, sick).
Understanding syllogisms. A special group of methods was made up of methods for studying logical thinking by studying the subject's understanding of inferences based on the four figures of the syllogism, as well as their graphic representations in the form of intersecting contours (circles or ellipses) of syllogisms, relations between the volumes of concepts - Venn diagrams, etc.
The study of constructive thinking. To study constructive thinking, specially colored cubes (Kos' cubes, Link's cube) are used, from which it is proposed to lay out patterns according to the model (complexity or fold a large cube of a given color.
Classification of thought disorders in pathopsychology
On the basis of experimental psychological studies of thinking, three main types of thinking disorders can usually be distinguished (Zeigarnik B.V., 1962): violations of the operational side of thinking; violations of the personal (motivational) component of thinking; violations of the dynamics of mental activity. Various combinations of these violations are also possible.
I. Violations of the operational side of thinking lie in the fact that in patients the ability to use the basic operations of thinking is disturbed and lost. This usually refers to the operations of generalization and abstraction (abstraction). Violations of the operational side of thinking are usually reduced to its two extreme variants: a decrease in the level of generalization and a distortion of the generalization process.
1.Reducing the level of generalization - in the judgments of patients, concrete, direct ideas about objects and phenomena dominate, and higher levels of generalization, where abstraction is required, are difficult for the patient to access. Most typical of this kind of violation for patients with dementia. With a pronounced decrease in the level of generalization, they do not cope with the classification task at all. The mental operation of association and opposition is also difficult (the exclusion of the superfluous of the four objects presented), the interpretation and understanding of the figurative meaning of proverbs becomes inaccessible.
2.Distortion of the generalization process - is, as it were, the opposite of lowering the level of generalization, since the essential properties of objects, phenomena, the existing connections between them are not taken into account by the patients at all during the operation of generalization. In this case, the patient can isolate them by abstraction, i.e. he takes extremely general signs and connections as the basis of his generalization, but they are completely random, undirected and inadequate. For example, when classifying, the patient combines a fork, a table and a shovel into one group on the basis of "hardness", and combines a mushroom, a horse and a pencil into a group on the basis of "connection of organic with inorganic". All this creates the basis for fruitless wisdom - reasoning. The most typical violations of thinking by the type of distortion of the process of generalization for patients with schizophrenia.
II. Violations of the personal (motivational) component of thinking are manifested in violations of the regulatory, motivational function of thinking, as well as its criticality with the phenomena of actualization of the latent properties of concepts, "diversity" and "discontinuity" of thinking.
Thinking is a complex self-regulating form of activity; it is always determined by the goal, i.e. assigned task. The loss of purposefulness leads not only to superficiality and incompleteness of judgments, but also to the loss of thinking functions that regulate behavior, since there is no thinking that is divorced from the needs, motives, aspirations and feelings of a person, his personality as a whole.
The signs of the objects on the basis of which the classification is carried out are stable for a healthy person. This stability of the objective meaning of things is often disturbed in patients with schizophrenia, which in the experimental situation leads to actualization of latent, i.e. hidden, understandable and interesting only to the patient himself, signs and properties of objects that acquired meaning for him only thanks to painfully changed motives and attitudes or updated from memory on the basis of past life experience. For example, a patient in one group combines the sun, a candle and a kerosene lamp and excludes an electric lamp. At the same time, he says that "the electric lamp smells too much of civilization, which killed everything that was good in a person ...". In another case, the patient, correctly performing many experimental tasks, suddenly, in an experiment to “eliminate the superfluous”, upon presentation of cards with the image of glasses, scales, a thermometer and a watch, offers a group of “medical” items: “The doctor looks at the pulse through the glasses and determines the body temperature thermometer. Such a violation of thinking is also based on the use by the patient not of the main, but of latent signs for the classification of objects and phenomena.
Such single deviations from the correct implementation of the classification methodology constitute the essence of thinking disorders according to the type slipping. The patient, correctly solving the task as a whole, suddenly suddenly goes astray from the correct train of thought due to a false, inadequate association, and then is again able to continue reasoning consistently, without returning to the mistake made and without correcting it. Slips in thinking are usually found in patients with initial forms of schizophrenia.
Violations of the personality-motivational component of thinking are especially pronounced in diversity of thinking. Here, the patients also do not maintain a single line of reasoning when considering a phenomenon, but approach it from different positions. Judgments at the same time proceed in the patient as if on different planes. He combines objects during the performance of the same task, either on the basis of the properties of the objects themselves, or on the basis of their personal tastes and attitudes. In these cases, there is also an actualization of the "latent" properties of objects that exist along with adequate reactions. For example, a patient unites groups either on the basis of a generalized sign (animals, dishes, furniture), then on the basis of a particular sign - material (iron, glass), colors (red, blue), then on the basis of their moral or general theoretical ideas - a group of "sweeping everything bad in life”, a group “testifying to the strength of the human mind”. Thus, during the execution of the classification technique, several such inadequate task groups appear.
The actualization of the latent properties of concepts, the diversity of thinking and reasoning (a tendency to fruitless sophistication) find their expression in speech, which in a number of patients acquires a “torn” character that is not understandable to others, since it consists of a set of completely unrelated phrases. Sentences with outwardly grammatically correct form are completely meaningless - the parts of the sentence are not logically connected to each other. Such speech is a clinical expression fragmented thinking. Often such patients do not need an interlocutor (a symptom of a monologue), i.e. speech for them loses its function of communication.
III. Violations of the dynamics of mental activity manifest themselves in inertness (viscosity) or in the lability of thinking as a mental process consisting of a chain of inferences that turn into reasoning.
At inertia of thinking slowness, stiffness of intellectual processes is found. At the same time, it is difficult for patients to change the chosen way of working, change the course of their reasoning, switch from one type of activity to another. Concrete connections of previous experience dominate, there is a tendency to excessive detail and thoroughness. The most common inertia of thinking occurs in epilepsy.
At lability of thinking there are inverse relationships - thoughts and ideas replace each other so quickly that patients sometimes do not have time to register them in their speech. They do not have time to finish one thought, as they are already moving on to another. Due to increased distractibility, they become unproductive: generalized solutions alternate with specific situational ones, and logical connections are often replaced by random combinations.
Classical classification of thinking disorders
Classifications of mental disorders in pathopsychology provide an opportunity to better understand the psychological structure of most clinical manifestations of thinking, but do not replace clinical classifications. Mental disorders in patients in psychiatry are most often conditionally divided into two large groups: quantitative (disorders of the associative process) and qualitative (pathology of judgments and inferences).
I. Pathology of the associative process. Most of the associative thought disorders are not found in an isolated, "pure" form, but in a wide variety of combinations.
1.Thinking tempo disorders
- Rapid thinking (tachyphrenia)- increase in the number of associations per unit of time. Thinking remains focused, but becomes unproductive, as simple associations begin to predominate (according to consonance, similarity, contiguity, contrast), thoughts become superficial and unproven. The highest degree of acceleration of thinking is a symptom of "leaps of ideas" - extreme distractibility with a continuous change in the subject matter of statements, depending on objects that accidentally fell into the field of vision. Fast-paced thinking is characteristic of manic states.
- slow thinking(bradyphrenia) - a decrease in the number of associations per unit of time. At the same time, although thinking retains its purposefulness, it also becomes unproductive - the associative process becomes impoverished and impoverished. The slowdown of the associative process is typical for depression.
2.Thinking Mobility Disorders
but) Detailed thinking- the goal of reasoning is not achieved along a short path, but through a lot of secondary, secondary associations, insignificant details and details, which makes thinking uneconomical.
b) Detailed thinking- pronounced detailing, combined with a long-term stuck on side associations (substantiality), but still with a subsequent return to the main topic of thought; this is labyrinthine, unproductive thinking.
in) Viscous thinking- an extreme degree of thoroughness, in which detailing to such an extent distorts the main direction of thought, which makes it practically incomprehensible, and thinking unproductive. The patient usually cannot keep the main line of conversation on his own, since he cannot get rid of side associations and gets stuck, “gets stuck” in them.
In a number of cases, “thinking stuck” is manifested in the fact that the patient gives the same answer to any questions or monotonously repeats one phrase. This mental disorder is called perseveration. Perseverations are also observed with damage to the sensory center of Wernicke's speech.
Violations of the mobility of thinking are characteristic of epileptic dementia, organic diseases of the brain.
3.Purposeful Thinking Disorders
but) Reasonable thinking- the purpose of the reasoning "eludes" the patient, which leads to "reasoning" on an insignificant occasion, idle talk, it is not clear to those around him "why" he says this. Content - banal moralizing, moralized, well-known sayings, etc. The speech is grammatically correct, but verbose and overloaded with participial and participle phrases, introductory words. Such thinking is unproductive, it is concrete, because it is not based on experience and does not belong to the abstract due to the lack of generalization.
b) Ataxic-associative ("broken") thinking- characterized by the complete absence of a logical connection between associations: what should be united is disconnected, and heterogeneous is connected. Ataxic thinking usually manifests itself in grammatically correct phrases: “I went to the store riding a three-story house”, “Flies with wings under water”, etc.
c) Paralogical thinking- the formation of logical connections between associations is also disrupted, but unlike broken thinking, where concepts and representations are combined with each other on the basis of completely random features, here thinking is characterized by obvious violations of formal logic. The patient comes to completely unfounded, even absurd conclusions, since in the chain of reasoning there is a “sliding” from the main series of thinking to a secondary one due to the loss of the logical connection between the elements. More precisely, associations here arise not according to the laws of generally accepted logic, but on the basis of some other logic that is “understandable” only to the sickest person (autistic, “crooked” logic). As an accidental phenomenon, such paralogisms are observed in a state of affect that violates the logical flow of thoughts, and as a permanent disorder, they are characteristic of schizophrenia.
A characteristic feature of paralogical thinking is that one object can be considered as an equivalent of any other if similarities are found between them.
d) Symbolic thinking. Symbolism is also characteristic of normal thinking when it reflects generally accepted ideas and views (coat of arms, mathematical signs, fable characters, etc.). With pathological symbolism, it is purely individual and incomprehensible to others. At the same time, there is a logical processing in the patient's reasoning, but a different meaning is embedded in the generally accepted concepts with which his thinking operates, which is understandable only to himself. As a result, many phenomena and objects of the surrounding world acquire a special meaning for the patient, different from the generally accepted one.
In the initial stages, symbolism may appear amorphous thinking, where only the fuzziness of the use of concepts is noticeable. At the same time, grammatically correctly constructed speech becomes vague, and the patient’s thoughts are therefore obscure to others - it is not clear “what” the patient is talking about (distinguish from reasoning, where it is not clear “why” the patient says this).
II. Pathology of judgments and conclusions. This group of disorders includes delusional, overvalued, obsessive and dominant ideas.
1. crazy ideas - these are incorrect, false thoughts arising on painful grounds that cannot be corrected either by persuasion or in any other way. A collection of delusional ideas is called a delusion. Delusion always arises on a painful basis and disrupts the adaptation of a person to his environment; it follows not so much from knowledge and experience as from an internal, affective-mental state. The person is covered (emotionally involved) with a false belief, although it is unacceptable for other people of this culture or subculture (i.e. this belief is not a religious dogma or superstition). Thus, in the definition of delusional ideas, the following four points are the most significant: the false content of ideas, the painful basis for their occurrence, the conviction that they are correct, and the inaccessibility of psychological correction. Such a delusion is also called a primary delusion, and during its formation one can often notice a certain phasing - first a delusional mood, and then a delusional perception and interpretation of external events, followed by the "crystallization" of the delusional idea itself. With primary delirium, one can even talk about the patient's peculiar faith in his morbid ideas - he "feels" that he is right (similar to religious feelings or superstitions in healthy people). Primary delusion is a true thought disorder and cannot be understood in terms of the patient's cultural and educational status, which distinguishes it from other types of beliefs (normal belief, dominant or overvalued idea).
Unlike the primary secondary delusion understandable and explicable in combination with other psychopathological phenomena such as hallucinations or mood changes. For example, a patient who is convinced that he is being "poisoned by his neighbors" may initially receive this information from the "voices" he "hears".
2.Overvalued (delusional) ideas. They are judgments or a set of thoughts that one-sidedly reflect real circumstances and dominate in consciousness due to their special personal significance. The main distinguishing feature of an overvalued idea is that it is always based on some real fact, however very insignificant, petty. However, judgments and conclusions that arose on the basis of minor facts in the mind of the patient begin to be overestimated in their significance and take an undeservedly large place in life. Overvalued ideas, unlike delusional ones, never have the character of absurdity, and the patient can be dissuaded to some extent from them for a short time. In the practice of a general practitioner, the greatest difficulties in diagnosis and treatment are caused by overvalued ideas of some kind of somatic trouble, since they are really based on some minor disease, the significance of which is overestimated by the patient.
3. Intrusive ideas. Obsessive ideas are characterized by the appearance in the mind of relentless and intrusive thoughts, which the patient himself critically evaluates as painful, absurd and untrue, but their repeated occurrence cannot be eliminated again and again. The fact of this irresistible obsession (obsession) is subjectively hard experienced by a person. Obsessions are quite often combined with obsessive actions (an irresistible need to perform some kind of action or deed). All types of obsessions can occur with a relatively rare disease (0.05% in the population) - obsessive-compulsive disorder (obsessive-compulsive disorder).
Distracted obsessions- fruitless philosophizing, obsessive counting and obsessive reproductions.
Fruitless philosophizing, or spiritual, mental chewing gum, rumination, is manifested by an obsessive desire again and again to resolve unnecessary or even meaningless questions (for example, the patient is forced to think why the right hand is called the right hand, and the left hand is called the left hand).
Obsessive counting (arithmania) is expressed by an annoying desire to count and keep in memory the number of steps taken, passers-by, poles, cars, to perform counting operations in the mind.
Obsessive reproductions - an annoying recall of forgotten or unnecessary terms, names, definitions, episodes from life. For example, onomatomania is the obsessive recall of various names.
figurative obsessions- these are mainly simple phobias (fears of a specific content), obsessive fears, ideas and memories, contrasting ideas and blasphemous thoughts, as well as obsessive drives to act (compulsions).
Phobias - in contrast to obsessive thoughts and actions, with phobias, i.e. obsessive fears of specific situations or objects, the patient does not experience anxiety and discomfort if he does not encounter frightening objects. However, they form restrictive behavior: the patient begins to avoid frightening situations when possible.
4 . dominant ideas. The dominant idea should be called such a thought that occupies an undeservedly large place in the mind of a person. Dominant ideas often occur in healthy people when they are intensely striving for something and focused on achieving the goal. Patients have different attitudes towards dominant ideas, but sometimes these ideas begin to weigh them down. Without doubting their correctness, the patient understands that they completely unlawfully possess him all the time. These ideas are painful not because they incorrectly reflect reality, but because some real fact has attracted stubborn attention for too long (the "sticking" of attention). Quite often in a psychiatric clinic, dominant ideas precede other morbid ideas, such as delusions.
Imagination
Imagination (fantasy) - a cognitive mental process of creating a new image (representation) of an object or situation by restructuring (transforming) the ideas that a person has.
Imagination, as a peculiar form of reflection of reality, carries out a mental retreat beyond the limits of the directly perceived, contributes to the anticipation of the future, and “revives” what was before.
Imagination is a creative process, and many mental processes are involved in it, especially thinking, memory and perception. At the same time, the imagination itself "intervenes" in the course of this or that mental act, as if penetrating it and giving it its own corresponding features.
Imagination is an analytical-synthetic activity that is carried out under the guiding influence of a consciously set goal, or feelings and experiences that possess a person at the moment.
Most often, imagination arises in a problematic situation, when a quick search for a solution is required, ahead of specific practical actions to resolve it. (leading reflection), which is also characteristic of thinking. However, unlike thinking, where the anticipatory reflection of reality occurs by operating with concepts, in the imagination this occurs in a concrete-figurative form - in the form of vivid representations. Thus, in problem situations, there are two systems of advancing the results of activity by consciousness - this is an organized system of images (imagination) and an organized system of concepts (thinking).
The possibility of choosing and reconstructing images (representations) or the possibility of a new combination of concepts provide a person with the plasticity of adaptation to life situations. Depending on the circumstances that characterize the problem situation, the same task can be solved both with the help of imagination and with the help of thinking. The role of the imagination is especially great in situations of uncertainty, when there is not the necessary completeness of knowledge that is necessary for thinking.
There are individual typological features of the imagination, closely related to the specifics of memory, thinking and perception. Persons with an artistic type of thinking have a wide variety of fantasies in terms of a concrete-figurative perception of the world (dominance of the right hemisphere of the brain), while others have a greater tendency to operate with abstract symbols and concepts (dominance of the left hemisphere of the brain).
Types of imagination
Imagination can be passive and active, and active, in turn, is divided into recreative (reproductive) and creative (productive imagination).
passive imagination characterized by involuntary occurrence, which is manifested in dreams and daydreams. A person can cause dreams intentionally, but even in this case, the emergence of the images of the imagination itself is distinguished by involuntary.
A distinctive feature of passive imagination is its complete or almost complete separation from the practical activity of a person. Products, images of dreams and daydreams are usually unrealizable and are a kind of replacement for reality, its surrogate. Dreams serve a person as a means of "escape" from various life difficulties, acting in this role as a special mechanism of psychological personal protection. All people tend to dream about something joyful, pleasant and tempting, but the predominance of a person in all the products of his imagination of dreams may indicate certain defects in the development of the personality, its passivity.
active imagination It is characterized by arbitrariness, and at the same time, a person voluntarily, by an effort of will, causes in himself the appropriate images, it is more focused on practical activity.
At recreating, reproductive in the imagination, the image of an object or phenomenon is created according to its verbal description. This is necessary for a person when reading books, studying various schemes and maps. Reproductive imagination is more like perception or memory than creativity.
At creative, productive imagination assumes the independent creation of completely new images without relying on a finished description. It requires the selection of appropriate representations from the memory reserves and their reconstruction in accordance with the plan.
At creative imagination distinguish between objective and subjective novelty of its result. If the images and ideas are original and do not repeat anything that is already in the experience of other people, then this is objectively new for this person and for all others. If the images of the imagination are new only for the creator himself (he did not know about the existence of similar results), then they should be attributed to the subjective new.
If the imagination paints such pictures for consciousness, to which nothing or little corresponds in reality, then it is called fantasies(in a broad sense, the terms "imagination" and "fantasy" are often identified). The concept of "dream" is most applicable to the content of images of the imagination that simulate situations and events that are especially desirable and significant for a person. Dreams can stimulate active activity, but they can also leave a person passive, as if staying in the world of his dreams.
Imagination images are created in various ways:
- agglutination - “gluing”, a synthesis of various, in everyday life, incompatible properties and parts of objects (this is how fairy-tale images are built - a mermaid, a centaur);
- hyperbolization - an increase or decrease in the size of an object, as well as a change in its individual parts (fabulous giants and dwarfs, many-armed goddesses);
- sharpening (emphasis) - emphasizing any individual signs (evil caricatures and friendly cartoons);
- schematization - separate representations merge, differences are smoothed out, and similarities stand out clearly;
- typification - highlighting the essential, repeating in homogeneous phenomena with its embodiment in a single image.
The phenomena of imagination are most clearly seen in artistic creativity people (eg. impressionism and cubism in painting, and in literature - fantasy). In the products of a person's imagination, fantasy, his personality is always manifested, especially unconscious emotional and motivational processes. This fact has found wide application in psychology to create various projective psychodiagnostic personal methods (Rorschach's "ink spots" test, Rosenzweig's drawing frustration test, etc.).
Knowledge of the characteristics of the imagination is necessary for the doctor to understand the internal state of his patients. The imagination of the patient, due to existing fears and fears for health, can distort the picture of the existing disease and its consequences, the course of the upcoming operation. The doctor, using the methods of explanation, persuasion and suggestion, must direct the patient's imagination along an optimistic path. With the help of imagination, we can control many psycho-physiological states of the body. It is these possibilities of imagination that underlie some psychotherapeutic methods of self-regulation, in particular auto-training.
iatrogenics
Some mental disorders sometimes owe their occurrence to excessive suspiciousness, impressionability and vivid imagination of the patient. Often the immediate cause for such a disease is a misunderstood word of the doctor. The doctor's word is a powerful means of influencing the patient. Like any other therapeutic agent, the doctor's word can have not only beneficial, but also harmful effects for the patient. The German psychiatrist O. Bumke (Bumke O., 1925) in his short article “The Doctor as the Cause of Mental Disorders” drew attention to the harmful consequences of the wrong (in psychological terms) behavior of the doctor with the patient. The patient here imagines that he has fallen ill with a dangerous disease and that he even “appears the corresponding symptoms. Such diseases that arise under the influence of a careless word of a doctor are commonly called iatrogenic diseases. The strength of the doctor's iatrogenic influences increases with the authoritarian, directive style of his relationship with the patient. The doctor must be able to use words.
In case of iatrogenesis, in the mind of a sick person, through the designation in words, the feeling of the symptom that he imagined under the influence of the words of the doctor is constantly present. The person, as if not wanting to think about the symptom, thinks about it. This myth of his about the disease constantly needs to be confirmed, so a person listens to himself and “finds” the corresponding sensations. It starts to hurt where it "should" hurt. This category also includes the “third-year symptom” well-known among physicians, when a student “discovers” all the diseases he is studying.
iatrogenics(from lat. iatros - doctor) - a common name denoting psychogenic disorders in a patient due to careless, hurting the patient's words of a doctor (iatrogeny proper) or his actions (iatropathia), a nurse (sororogeny, from lat. soror - sister), other medical workers. Harmful self-influence associated with prejudice towards the doctor, fears of a medical examination also lead to similar disorders - egogeny. Deterioration in the patient's condition under the influence of undesirable influences of other patients (doubts about the correctness of the diagnosis, treatment, etc.) is denoted by the term egrotogeny (from aegrotus - sick).
The myth of the disease plays a special role in the situation of treatment. If the patient believes in the treatment, then its effectiveness increases markedly. In some cases, a medicine (for example, an analgesic) can be replaced by a placebo ("dummy"), from which the ball subjectively feels the same effect. The healing myth, like the myth of the disease, does not have a clear structure and is subject to outside influence. The fame of a healer can also be a myth that promotes healing. Sometimes the most fantastic and absurd healing techniques find their staunch followers, exploiting this non-specific factor of the patient's "faith" in the healing effect, due to which certain healing successes are observed, especially in terms of immediate results.
A doctor can get into a difficult position if he takes a myth for reality or vice versa. The doctor must understand both his therapeutic possibilities or his ability to heal in one way or another, and be aware of the real condition of the patient. Seemingly innocent delusion of a doctor in his qualities as a healer can lead to the loss of time, effort and money for patients to carry out real pathogenetic treatment.
Pathological forms of imagination and their evaluation
In clinical practice, the doctor often has to meet with patients in whom psychopathological symptoms can relate to both passive and active imagination disorders. All these disorders are more common in individuals with a special mental make-up, characterized by features of infantilism and signs of excessive excitability of the imagination with a tendency to fiction and fantasizing.
Pathological forms of passive imagination
In a psychiatric and general somatic clinic, an assessment of the characteristics of passive imagination is most often required in patients with various types of decreased wakefulness and states of clouding of consciousness, as well as sleep disorders due to dreams.
Oneiroid dreamy, dream-like stupefaction observed as a result of trauma to the skull, acute infectious diseases with fever, intoxication, or some types of acute schizophrenia. At the same time, the patient's imagination processes are sharply activated, and the images he creates are "visualized" in the form of kaleidoscopic fantastic visions, reminiscent of pseudo-hallucinations.
Oneirism - the patient ceases to feel the differences between the images of the imagination in dreams and reality. At the same time, what you see in a dream may not be perceived with a proper critical assessment in the morning. Sometimes, at the same time, during the day, the patient has vivid dream images, as soon as he closes his eyes. Sometimes such "visions" happen with open eyes - daydreams like waking dreams or "sleep with open eyes." In mentally healthy individuals, the latter can be observed when the activity of consciousness is weakened - in a semi-drowsy state or in a state of passion.
hallucinations of the imagination a kind of psychogenic hallucinations, the plot of which follows from affectively significant and long-term ideas. It occurs especially easily in children with a painfully heightened imagination.
delusions of imagination- is a variant of delusional formation, which follows from the tendency to fantasize in people with a mythomaniac constitution. It arises sharply, as if by "intuition, inspiration and insight." Perception is not disturbed, the patient is fully oriented in place and in his own personality.
Dream epileptic seizures- dreams with a predominance of red, accompanying or replacing (equivalents) nocturnal epileptic seizure. They are always stereotyped, with visions of menacing images in the form of monsters, chimeras, and parts of their own body. In the daytime, such dream-like states can be a harbinger (aura) of a seizure in temporal lobe epilepsy, however, derealization phenomena, the phenomena of “already seen” and “never seen”, “violent” (not suppressed by an effort of will) fantastic ideas still prevail.
Pathological forms of active imagination
The main symptom of disorders of active imagination is a violation of criticality to its products and (or) their use. Most often in clinical practice, the doctor has to deal with the phenomenon of pathological deceit - the so-called fantastic pseudology (pseudology phantastica). It is expressed in the fact that a person begins to sincerely believe in the fantasies created by him (fantastic ideas and images). In the modern sense, pseudology is considered in two main variants.
1.Phantasms psychotic, where the imaginary is subjectively more firmly accepted as true (for example, as in confabulations) and it can turn into whole plot pseudologies and even delusional fantasies. Such disorders are more characteristic of various organic brain diseases with severe memory impairment (progressive paralysis, brain syphilis, trauma), as well as epilepsy and schizophrenia.
2.Fantasies are non-psychotic, where pseudology is a combination of two types of fantasizing: “for oneself” (“escape” to the dream world from reality) and “for others” (increasing one's own attractiveness), i.e. possesses the properties of both psychological defense mechanisms and the properties of "manipulative mechanisms" by other people.
Non-psychotic fantasies as a kind of pseudology are especially common in individuals with hysterical psychopathic tendencies and a "mythomaniac constitution". At the same time, such a person, like any liar, knows that he is lying. However, this lie is pathological - it differs from the usual one in that it is most often clearly inappropriate, and the patient understands all its uselessness, but cannot resist his need to lie. Pseudologies, unlike ordinary hysterical psychopathic personalities, are more active in striving to realize their fantastic constructions, therefore they often come into conflict with the law. At the same time, deceit obscures all other personality traits in them.
Speech
In its meaning, speech has a multifunctional character. For a person, it is the main means of communication, a means of thinking, a carrier of consciousness and memory, a carrier of information (written texts), a means of controlling the behavior of other people and regulating one's own behavior.
Speech is the process of verbal communication, the expression of a thought.
Language- this is a system of conventional signs, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. If the speech expresses the psychology of a single person, then the language reflects the psychology of the whole people speaking this language. The link between language and speech is the meaning of the word, which is expressed both in units of language and in units of speech. The meaning of the word is the same for all people, and its meaning can be purely personal. Speech arose in the process of historical development along with thinking, and it has primarily a communicative, social significance for people. However, we resort to speech not only when we need to logically argue our attitude to different life problems, but also for everyday communication, interaction about work, study, play or other activities. The need for joint activity leads to the need for communication.
Communication is the exchange of information, and language is a system of signs. Thoughts and experiences of a person must first be converted (coded) into oral (sounds) or written (letters, images) signs in order to convey them to other people. The meaning (meaning) of thoughts and experiences will be clear to people if they know the language in which they are transmitted. Communication between people is carried out not only through language, but also with the help of many other signs: scientific symbols (in mathematics, physics, etc.), signs of art (notes in music, symbols of fine art), marine signaling, traffic signs. The science of signs and sign systems (including linguistic sign systems) is called semiotics.
The simplest form of oral speech is dialogue.
Dialog- this is a speech that is actively supported by the interlocutor and it is “curtailed”, since much is implied in it due to the knowledge and understanding of the situation by the partner.
monologue speech- extended speech of a person addressed to other people. It requires the speaker to be able to coherently and consistently express their thoughts, giving them a complete form. monologue speech except communicative function also has a pronounced expressive function. This includes facial expressions and gestures, pauses and intonations that emphasize the speaker's attitude to the content of the conversation.
Written speech is a kind of monologue speech but, unlike a monologue, is built using written characters.
As independent main types, expressive and impressive speech are distinguished, which have a different psychological structure.
expressive speech(the process of utterance - oral or written speech) begins with an idea (plan of the utterance), then goes through the stage of inner speech, which has a "folded" character, and finally passes into the stage of a detailed external utterance - oral or written.
Impressive speech(the process of understanding a speech statement - oral or written) begins with the perception of a message through hearing or vision, then goes through the decoding stage (selection of information units) and ends with the formation of a message scheme and its understanding in inner speech.
inner speech is inaccessible to direct observation and is characterized by curtailment (in particular, many members of the sentence are omitted, vowel sounds are “dropped out”), it is specially adapted to perform mental operations and actions in the mind.
Formation of speech activity in children
There are three main critical periods in the development of speech function in children.
First critical period(1-2nd year of life), when the prerequisites for speech are formed and the foundations of communicative behavior are formed, the driving force of which is the need for communication. There is an intensive development of cortical speech zones, in particular Broca's zone, the critical period of its development is the age of 14-18 months. Any adverse factors operating during this age period may affect the speech development of the child.
Second critical period(3 years), when connected speech develops intensively. The vulnerability of the psyche during this period (stubbornness, negativism, etc.) can also affect speech development. Stuttering, mutism may occur as a protest reaction to the excessive demands of adults. Stuttering can also be caused by age uneven maturation of individual parts of the speech system ("evolutionary stuttering").
Third critical period (5-7 years) - the beginning of the development of written speech. The load on the central nervous system increases. When increased requirements are presented, “breakdowns” of nervous activity can also occur with the onset of stuttering. Critical periods of speech development play the role of predisposing conditions, and in some cases they have an independent role in the formation of various dysfunctions of the speech system.
Sign language
In any communication, there are various non-speech means, in particular gestures, that complement or express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the message. A special role in the use of gestures in art is pantomime, opera, drama, etc. Sign language becomes especially important for people with hearing impairments. The system of gestural communication of the deaf has a complex structure and includes two varieties of gestural speech - colloquial and tracing.
Conversational sign language of the deaf is a completely independent system. For a long time, it was not possible to create a linguistic description of colloquial sign language, since traditional linguistics operates with the concepts of “part of speech”, “noun”, “verb”, and in colloquial sign speech of the deaf and dumb there is no way to distinguish these elements. The gesture does not sound, but it has its own configuration, spatial position and movement, conveying all the features and shades of messages to the interlocutor. The composition and number of gestures of colloquial sign language is very large, sometimes communication systems are formed, which are used only in this particular family.
Tracing gesture speech has a different structure. Gestures here are equivalent to words, and their order is the same as in a normal sentence. The child masters it in the process of special education, and it becomes the main means of communication between the deaf and the hearing. In tracing gesture speech, gestures accompany the speaker's oral speech. Deaf interlocutors most often pronounce words without a voice. Each word, as well as individual letters, is accompanied by its gestural equivalent. For example, the dactyl (Greek daktylos - finger) Russian alphabet is made up of one-handed gestures, while English dactylology is two-handed. Special dactyl alphabets are also used for the deaf-blind. They are based on national dactyl alphabets. The deaf-blind person's hand is placed on the speaker's hand, and he "reads" the dactyl speech. There is also an international dactyl alphabet for the deaf and blind.
Speech disorders
Speech disorders can occur both as a result of congenital underdevelopment of all or individual parts of the speech system, and in various diseases, especially when the speech zones of the cerebral cortex are affected.
With a number of mental illnesses, the patient loses initiative in verbal communication - the patient behaves passively, answers briefly, disinterestedly (answers like “yes”, “no”) or with refusal concepts (“I don’t know”, “I don’t know”), which is sometimes erroneous interpreted as violations of memory and intelligence. The fading of the need for communication is one of the main manifestations of autism. Less common is the opposite state - verbosity, but also with a lack of interest in the interlocutor. The main feature here is the monologue of speech, the disappearance of dialogue. Such impersonal communication is often referred to as "autism in reverse, inside out."
Disorders of phonation speech design
1. Dysphonia(aphonia) - the absence or disorder of phonation due to pathological changes in the vocal apparatus. Voice pathology can occur in various diseases: chronic laryngitis, paresis and paralysis of the larynx; violations of the tone and mobility of the vocal cords of the larynx can also be of a functional nature (phonasthenia in persons of vocal professions, psychogenic aphonia in neuroses). The removal (extirpation) of the larynx due to a malignant tumor completely deprives the voice.
2. Bradilalia(bradyphrasia) and takhilalia(tachyphrasia) - a pathologically slow or pathologically accelerated rate of speech. These disorders are associated with centrally conditioned violations of the implementation of the speech program (organic or functional in nature).
At bradilalia sounds and words succeed each other at a slower pace, although they are pronounced correctly (at a normal speech rate, 10-12 sounds per second are usually pronounced). If syllables are separated by short pauses, then the speech becomes scanned. With bradylalia, the voice is usually monotonous, losing its modulation. The face is amimic, all movements are slow and sluggish. Slowness is also noted in the sphere of thinking, in switching attention.
At takhilalia 20-30 sounds can be pronounced without sharp distortions of phonetics. With haste, speech attention disorders, hesitations, repetitions, and ambiguity in the pronunciation of phrases may appear, but when attention is attracted, a quick restoration of balance between internal and external speech occurs. Persons with takhilalia are also characterized by general motor hyperactivity. Motor restlessness is noted even during sleep (children toss and turn in bed).
3. Stuttering- violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, due to the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus. It is centrally conditioned, has an organic or functional (logoneurosis) nature, occurs more often in the course of the child's speech development. Physiological (biological) symptoms of stuttering include speech convulsions, disorders of the central nervous system and physical health, general and speech motility. To psychological (social) - speech stutters and other violations of expressive speech, the phenomenon of fixation on a defect, logophobia, tricks and other psychological features.
The main external symptom of stuttering is speech spasms. Their duration in average cases ranges from 0.2 to 13 seconds, in severe cases - up to 90 seconds. With tonic convulsions, there is a short jerky or prolonged spasmodic muscle contraction - tone: “t-opol” (a line after the letter means a convulsive pause when pronouncing the word). With clonic convulsions, there is a rhythmic repetition of the same convulsive movements - clonus: “this-that-zero”. Not only clonic and tonic, but also mixed (clonic-tonic) forms of stuttering can be observed.
4. Dyslalia(tongue-tied tongue) - a violation, shortcomings in the sound pronunciation of phonemes with formally normal hearing and preserved innervation of the speech apparatus.
At the core acoustic-phonemic dyslalia there are shortcomings in the process of recognizing and distinguishing the phonemes that make up the word (phonemic hearing). The child does not recognize one or the other acoustic sign complex sound (mountain - "bark", beetle - "pike", fish - "lyba"). All this interferes with the correct perception of speech by both the speaker and the listener.
At articulatory-phonemic dyslalia phonemic hearing in a child is fully developed, but there are violations in the motor link of speech production. In this case, the articulatory base of some sounds may not be fully formed, which leads to the replacement of the desired sound with another, simpler in articulation. In other cases, which happens most often, the articulatory base is formed, but the wrong decision is made about the use of sound, as a result of which the sound image of the word becomes unstable (the child can pronounce words correctly and incorrectly).
At articulatory-phonetic dyslalia Sound defects are due to incorrectly formed articulatory positions. Most often in these cases, the wrong sound is close to the right one in terms of its acoustic effect and is recognized by others.
To denote the distorted pronunciation of sounds, international terms are used, formed from the names of the letters of the Greek alphabet with the help of the suffix "ism": rotacism - a defect in the pronunciation of "r", lambdacism - "l", gammacism - "g", chitism - "x", cappacism - "k", sigmatism - whistling and hissing sounds, etc.
5. Rhinolalia(nasal) - a violation of the timbre of the voice and sound pronunciation due to anatomical and physiological defects of the speech apparatus (cleft palate, violations of the resonant properties of the nasal cavities, etc.).
6. Dysarthria(tongue-tied speech) - a violation of pronunciation without a disorder in the perception of oral speech, reading and writing, due to a lack of innervation of the speech apparatus (paralysis or paresis of speech motor muscles, which is often found in cerebral palsy). Its main features are defects in sound pronunciation and voice, combined with speech disorders, primarily articulation, motor skills and speech breathing. The tone of the speech muscles can be either pathologically increased or decreased.
Disorders of the structural-semantic (internal) design of speech
1. Alalia(dysphasia, hearing-mutism) - the absence or underdevelopment of speech due to an organic lesion of the speech zones of the cerebral cortex in the prenatal or early period of a child's development. It occurs in about 1% of preschool children (0.1% of the total population), more often in boys.
With motor alalia, the pronunciation of words is impaired, the parents of such children characterize them as understanding, but not wanting to speak. With sensory alalia, the understanding of speech is impaired - the child hears, but does not understand the words. Often, at the same time, he is rather talkative (increased speech activity) and he pronounces the audible words several times as an echo (echolalia), but he does not catch their meaning.
2. Aphasia(loss of speech) - complete or partial loss of speech (after it has already been formed), due to local brain damage as a result of head injuries, neuroinfections and brain tumors. Up to 3 years, while speech has not yet been formed, the diagnosis of aphasia is impossible. In adults, aphasia occurs in about a third of cases of cerebrovascular accidents, and motor aphasia is most often observed here. In children, aphasia occurs less frequently as a result of a head injury, brain tumor, or complications from an infectious disease.
Writing disorders
Modern research shows that reading and writing are a complex, multi-level form of speech activity and various analyzers take part and interact in it. Violations of various parts of this functional system may underlie violations of speech and writing.
The term "reading disorders" is used to refer to dyslexia”, letters - “ dysgraphia", and the complete lack of formation of reading and writing skills is designated, respectively, as" alexia" And " agraphia».
1. Dyslexia- partial specific disorder reading process. It manifests itself in difficulties in identifying and recognizing letters, in difficulties in merging letters into syllables and syllables into words, which leads to incorrect reproduction of the sound form of a word, distortion of reading comprehension. Dyslexia occurs in 3% of children primary school mass school, more often among boys.
According to the manifestations, two types of dyslexia (agraphia) are usually distinguished: verbal and literal. At verbal (agraphic) dyslexia understanding of the meaning of phrases and individual words is impaired, and when literal (agnostic) dyslexia impaired recognition of individual letters, numbers and other characters.
2. Dysgraphia- Partial specific violation of the writing process. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child mastering this skill.
At amnestic (pure) dysgraphia the greatest difficulties arise with spontaneous writing and writing from dictation, while copying remains relatively intact. Characteristic is the difficulty in finding a grapheme corresponding to a given phoneme - the graphic image seems to be forgotten, alienated from its phonemic meaning. At apraxic agraphia patients cannot take a pen or pencil correctly and give the hand the position necessary for writing. Because of this, the drawing of the letter is distorted, mirrored or its proportions are violated. Violations are saved for all types of writing, including copying.
Psychological and pedagogical correction of dyslexia and developmental dysgraphia is carried out by methods aimed at improving visual auditory gnosis, mnesis, spatial representations and their speech designations. Much attention is paid to the comparison of mixed letters with the maximum use of different parsers.
Practical part
Methodology "Individual styles of thinking" (A. Alekseeva, L. Gromova)
Target: determining the preferred way of thinking, as well as the manner in which questions are asked and decisions are made.
Instruction: There are no right or wrong answers to choose from. You will get the most useful information if you report as accurately as possible about the features of your real thinking, and not about how you think you should think.
Each item in this questionnaire consists of a statement, followed by five of its possible endings. Your task is to indicate the extent to which each ending applies to you. On the questionnaire, in the squares to the right of each ending, write down the numbers - 5.4, 3, 2 or 1, indicating the degree to which this ending applies to you: from 5 (most suitable) to 1 (least suitable). Each number (point) must be used only once. Each of the five endings in the group must receive a number.
Example
When I read a book in my specialty, I pay attention mainly to:
- quality of presentation, style;
- the main ideas of the book;
- composition and design of the book;
- logic and argumentation of the author;
- conclusions that can be drawn from the book.
If you are sure that you have understood the instructions above, continue to work on.
BUT. When there is a conflict of ideas between people, I prefer the side that:
- establishes, defines the conflict and tries to express it openly;
- best expresses the values and ideals involved;
- best reflects my personal views and experience;
- approaches the situation in the most logical and consistent way;
- presents arguments as concisely and convincingly as possible.
B. When I start working on a project as part of a team, the most important things for me are:
- understand the purpose and significance of this project;
- reveal the goals and values of the members of the working group;
- determine how we are going to develop this project;
- understand how this project can benefit our group;
- so that the work on the project was organized and moved forward.
IN. Generally speaking, I absorb new ideas best when I can:
- link them to current or future activities;
- apply them to specific situations;
- focus on them and analyze them carefully;
- understand how they are similar to the usual ideas;
- contrast them with other ideas.
G. For me, graphs, diagrams, drawings in books or articles usually:
- more useful than text if they are accurate;
- useful if they clearly show important facts;
- useful if they raise questions about the text;
- useful if they are supported and explained by the text;
- no more and no less useful than other materials.
D. If I was asked to do some research, I would probably start with...
- attempts to place it in a wider context;
- determining if I can do it alone I will need help;
- reflections and suggestions on possible outcomes;
- decisions about whether to conduct this study at all;
- attempts to formulate the problem as fully and precisely as possible.
E. If I had to collect information from the members of an organization regarding its current problems, I would prefer:
- meet with them individually and ask specific questions to each;
- hold a general meeting and ask them to express their opinions;
- interview them in small groups, asking general questions;
- meet informally with influential people and find out their views;
- ask the members of the organization to provide me (preferably in writing) with all relevant information that they have.
- withstood oppositions, withstood the resistance of opposing approaches;
- agrees with other things I believe;
- has been confirmed in practice;
- lends itself to logical and scientific proof;
- can be checked personally on the facts available to observation.
Z. When I read a magazine article in my spare time, it will most likely be:
- about how someone managed to solve a personal or social problem;
- is devoted to a debatable or social issue;
- a report on scientific or historical research;
- about an interesting, funny person or event;
- accurate, without a share of fiction, a message about someone's interesting life experience.
AND. When I read a job report, I pay attention to...
- closeness of conclusions to my personal experience;
- the possibility of implementing these recommendations;
- reliability and validity of the results with actual data;
- understanding by the author of the goals and objectives of the work;
- data interpretation.
TO. When I am given a task, the first thing I want to know is:
- what is the best method to solve this problem;
- who and when it is necessary that this task be solved;
- why this problem is worth solving;
- what impact the decision can have on other tasks that have to be solved;
- what is the direct, immediate benefit of solving this problem.
L. I usually learn the most about how to do something new by:
- I clarify for myself how it is connected with something else that is familiar to me;
- get down to business as early as possible;
- listening to different points of view on how to do it;
- there is someone showing me how to do it;
- carefully analyze how to do it in the best way.
M. If I had to take tests or take an exam, I would prefer:
- a set of objective, problem-oriented questions on the subject;
- discussion with those who are also being tested;
- oral presentation and demonstration of what I know;
- a free-form post about how I tried on what I learned.
- written report covering background, theory and method.
N. The people whose special qualities I respect the most are probably...
- prominent philosophers and scientists;
- writers and teachers;
- political and business leaders;
- economists and engineers;
- farmers and journalists.
ABOUT. Generally speaking, I find a theory useful if it...
- seems akin to those other theories and ideas which I have already assimilated;
- explains things in a way that is new to me;
- able to systematically explain many related situations;
- serves to clarify my personal experience and observations;
- has a specific practical application.
P. When I read a book (article) that is outside the scope of my immediate activity, I do it mainly because of...
- interest in improving their professional knowledge;
- indications on the part of a person I respect about its possible usefulness;
- desire to expand their general erudition;
- desire to go beyond their own activities for a change;
- desire to learn more about a particular subject.
R. When I read an article on a controversial issue, I prefer that it:
- the advantages for me were shown, depending on the chosen point of view;
- all the facts were stated during the discussion;
- logically and consistently outlined the controversial issues involved;
- the values that the author uses were determined;
- both sides of the disputed issue and the essence of the conflict were vividly covered.
FROM. When I first approach a technical problem, I'm more likely to:
- try to relate it to a larger problem or theory;
- look for ways and means to solve this problem;
- consider alternative ways to solve it;
- look for ways others may have already solved the problem;
- try to find the best procedure to solve it.
T. Generally speaking, I am most inclined to:
- find existing methods that work and use them as best as possible;
- puzzle over how heterogeneous methods might work together;
- discover new and better methods;
- find ways to make existing methods work better and in new ways;
- understand how and why existing methods should work.
Now, please transfer your answers to the appropriate boxes on the decoder sheet and add up the scores first in rows and then in columns, following the instructions on this form.
Rewrite your scores in the five blank boxes below.
So, the hardest work is over. Now it is necessary to evaluate the obtained results and give them a meaningful interpretation.
But first, check the quality of your work. Your five scores, written in the lettered boxes (C, I, P, A, R) at the bottom of the decoder form, should add up to 270 points.
Otherwise, you will have to check your "accounting": first - vertically, and then, if necessary, horizontally. If this does not help to find an error, one thing remains - to check the correctness of your answers (in the sense of following the instructions) for each item of the questionnaire. One way or another, it is necessary to achieve the fulfillment of the condition "C + I + P + A + P = 270".
As you may have guessed, letters are nothing but the initial letters of the names of thinking styles.
C - synthetic style
I - idealistic style
P - pragmatic style
A - analytical style
R - realistic style
Synthetic style thinking manifests itself in creating something new, original, combining dissimilar, often opposite ideas, views, and carrying out thought experiments. The motto of the Synthesizer is "What if ...". Synthesizers strive to create the broadest possible, generalized concept that allows you to combine different approaches, "remove" contradictions, reconcile opposing positions. This is a theorized style of thinking, such people like to formulate theories and build their conclusions on the basis of theories, they like to notice contradictions in other people's reasoning and draw the attention of people around them, they like to sharpen the contradiction and try to find a fundamentally new solution that integrates opposing views, they tend to see the world constantly changing and love change, often for change's sake.
Idealistic style thinking is manifested in a tendency to intuitive, global assessments without a detailed analysis of problems. A feature of Idealists is an increased interest in goals, needs, human values, moral problems; they take into account subjective and social factors in their decisions, strive to smooth out contradictions and emphasize similarities in various positions, easily perceive various ideas and proposals without internal resistance, successfully solve such problems where emotions, feelings, assessments and other subjective moments are important factors, sometimes utopically striving to reconcile and unite everyone and everything. "Where are we going and why?" - the classic question of the Idealists.
Pragmatic style thinking is based on direct personal experience, on the use of those materials and information that are easily available, striving to get a specific result (albeit limited), a practical gain as soon as possible. The motto of the Pragmatists is: “Something will work”, “Anything that works will do”. The behavior of Pragmatists may seem superficial, chaotic, but they adhere to the principle: events in this world happen inconsistently, and everything depends on random circumstances, so in an unpredictable world you just need to try: “Today we will do this, and then we'll see ...” Pragmatists feel good conjuncture, supply and demand, successfully determine the tactics of behavior, using the existing circumstances in their favor, showing flexibility and adaptability.
Analytical style thinking is focused on a systematic and comprehensive consideration of an issue or problem in those aspects that are set by objective criteria, it is inclined to a logical, methodical, thorough (with an emphasis on details) manner of solving problems. Before making a decision, analysts develop a detailed plan and try to collect as much information as possible, objective facts, using deep theories. They perceive the world as logical, rational, orderly and predictable, therefore they tend to look for a formula, method or system that can give a solution to a particular problem and is amenable to rational justification.
Realistic style thinking is focused only on the recognition of facts, and “real” is only that which can be directly felt, personally seen or heard, touched, etc. Realistic thinking is characterized by concreteness and an attitude towards correcting, correcting situations in order to achieve a certain result. The problem for Realists is whenever they see something is wrong and want to fix it.
Thus, it can be noted that the individual style of thinking affects the ways of solving problems, the ways of behavior, and the personal characteristics of a person.
If you scored between 60 and 65 for any style of thinking, it means that you have a moderate preference for that style(s). In other words, other things being equal, you will be more likely to use this style (or styles) more (or more often) than others.
If you scored between 66 and 71, then you have a strong preference for that style (or styles) of thinking.
You probably use this style systematically, consistently, and in most situations.
If, on the other hand, your score for a certain style was 72 or more, then you have a very strong preference for that style of thinking. In fact, you are devoted to him.
Now, if you get one or more high marks in some styles of thinking, you are bound to have one or more low marks in other styles. Then, if your score for any style is between 43 and 48 points, you are characterized by moderate neglect of this style of thinking. That is, ceteris paribus, you, if possible, will avoid it when solving problems that are significant to you.
If you scored from 37 to 42 points, you most likely have a persistent disregard for this style of thinking. Finally, if your score is 36 or less, this style is completely foreign to you, you probably don't use it almost anywhere and never, even if it is the best approach to the problem under the circumstances.
BLANK-DECODER
Test tasks
1. Thinking includes the following operations, except:
- analysis;
- abstractions;
- separation;
- generalizations.
2. Features that impede creative thinking are the following, except:
- tendencies to conformism;
- the ability to see an object from a new angle of view;
- rigidity of thinking;
- internal censorship.
3. Thinking is most closely associated with the following mental processes:
- emotions
- imagination
- Attention
4. The operations of thinking include:
- analysis
- retention (preservation)
- generalization
- reproduction
- abstraction
- specification
5. The operation of the thinking process, which requires the ability to highlight the essential features of objects:
- Generalization
- abstraction
- Classifications
- inference
6. Violations of the mobility of thinking include:
- Accelerated Thinking
- Detailed thinking
- Viscous thinking
- slow thinking
- Detailed thinking
7. Paralogical thinking is:
- Complete lack of logical connection between associations
- Violation of the formation of logical connections between associations
- The purpose of the reasoning "eludes" the patient, which leads to "reasoning" on an unimportant occasion, idle talk
8. The type of thinking, which is characterized by reliance on ideas, i.e. secondary images of objects and phenomena of reality, and also operates with visual images of objects:
- Visual and effective
- Visual-figurative
- abstract-logical
9. Reliance in thinking on latent signs, revealed during the "pictogram" technique, indicates the presence of:
10. A prolonged and irreversible disturbance of any mental function, the general development of mental abilities, or the characteristic way of thinking, feeling and behaving that constitutes an individual is called:
- insanity
- mental retardation
- defect
- dementia
- personality degradation
11. Fruitless, aimless thinking based on a violation of thinking is called:
- demagogy
- rhetoric
- ambivalence
- autistic thinking
- reasoning
12. With introversion, unlike autism, as a rule, it is noted:
- being critical of one's own
- less pronounced closure
- no hallucinations
- lack of crazy ideas
- uncritical to one's own isolation
13. Inference refers to:
- mental operations
- thought processes
- thinking factors
- thinking types
- thinking mechanisms
14. Reducing the level of generalizations and distortion of the generalization process refers to:
- disturbances in the dynamics of thought processes
- violations of the operational side of thinking
- violations of the personal component of thinking
- violations of the process of external mediation of cognitive activity
- violations of the process of self-regulation of cognitive activity
15. Disorder of thinking, in which the formation of new associations is significantly (maximally) difficult due to the long-term dominance of one thought, representation is called:
- inertia
- reasoning
- perseveration
- slipping
- diversity
16. Logophobia occurs when:
- schizophrenia
- diabetes
- stuttering
- hyperkinetic syndrome
- autism
17. Emotional-volitional disorders, violations of the structure and hierarchy of motives, inadequacy of self-esteem and the level of claims, impaired thinking in the form of "relative affective dementia", impaired prediction and reliance on past experience are included in the structure:
- schizophrenic symptom complex
- neurotic symptom complex
- psychopathic symptom complex
- organic symptom complex
- oligophrenic symptom complex
18. Cancerophobia is:
- obsessive fear of getting cancer
- obsessive fear of getting any cancer
- super-valuable idea that a person has a cancerous tumor
- delusional idea that a person has a cancerous tumor
- the dominant idea that a person has a cancerous tumor
19. Placebo effect associated with:
- parameters of the medicinal substance
- psychological attitude
- the duration of the stimulus
- drug addiction
- surprise factor
20. Iatrogenic diseases are diseases:
- caused by pathological forms of imagination
- arising under the influence of a careless word of a doctor
- arising from the underdevelopment of the speech system
- arising from violations of the dynamics of mental activity
Answers
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In the process of mental activity, a person learns the world around him with the help of special mental operations. These operations constitute various interrelated aspects of thinking that pass into each other. The main mental operations are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization and generalization.
Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of the whole into parts or a mental separation from the whole of its sides, actions and relationships. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts.
Synthesis- this is a mental union of parts, properties, actions into a single whole. The operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis. In its process, the relationship of individual objects or parts to their complex whole is established. Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. What is analyzed is something that includes something common, the whole. Synthesis also involves analysis: in order to combine some parts, elements into a single whole, these parts and features must be obtained as a result of analysis.
Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities or differences between objects and phenomena or their individual features. In practice, comparison is observed when one object is applied to another, for example, one pencil to another.
Abstraction consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any properties, signs of the object under study, is distracted from the rest. In this process, the attribute separated from the object is thought independently of other attributes of the object, becomes an independent object of thought. Abstraction is usually carried out in the process of analysis. It was through abstraction that abstract, abstract concepts of length, breadth, quantity, equality, value were created.
Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Concretization is addressed in the event that the expressed thought turns out to be incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual. When we are asked to give an example, the request is essentially to specify what has been said before.
Generalization- the mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features, for example, the identification of similar features found in apples, pears, etc. The simplest generalizations are to combine objects based on individual, random features. More complex is complex generalization, in which objects are combined for different reasons.
All of these operations cannot occur in isolation, without connection with each other. On their basis, more complex operations of thinking arise.
In addition to operations, there are also processes of thinking: 1) judgment- this is a statement containing a certain thought; 2) inference- is a series of logically connected statements from which new knowledge is derived; 3) definition of concepts is considered as a system of judgments about a certain class of objects (phenomena), highlighting the most common features; 4) induction and deduction are ways of producing inferences that reflect the direction of thought. Induction involves the derivation of a particular judgment from the general, and deduction - the derivation of a general judgment from a particular one.
