“Negative heuristics” in cultural analysis. Methodology of research programs I. Lakatos. Criticism of the concepts of K. Popper and T. Kuhn. The concepts of the "core" of the scientific program, positive and negative heuristics Negative heuristics: "hard core" about
This issue has already been touched upon above, here we will make some additions. In one of its definitions, heuristics is understood as a method, or methodological discipline, the subject of which is the solution of problems under conditions of uncertainty. The field of heuristics includes imprecise methodological regulations, and its main problem is the resolution of contradictions that arise in science. Heuristic (creative) problem solving methods are usually opposed to formal solution methods based on exact mathematical models.
From the point of view of Lakatos and some other Western methodologists, heuristics are characterized by conjecture, limiting the scope of the search through the analysis of goals, means and materials, attempts to integrate thinking and sensory perception, consciousness and the unconscious. “The program is made up of methodological rules: some of them are rules indicating which research paths should be avoided (negative heuristic), the other part are rules indicating which paths should be chosen and how to follow them (positive heuristic)” 2 .
At the same time, Lakatos believes that, firstly, “the positive heuristic of the research program can also be formulated as “metaphysical (i.e. philosophical. - VK.) principle". Secondly, "positive heuristics are, generally speaking, more flexible than negative ones." Thirdly, it is necessary to "separate" hard core"from more flexible metaphysical principles expressing positive heuristics." Thursday
1 Lakatos I. Methodology of scientific research programs // Questions of Philosophy. 1995. No. 4. P. 138. 2 Ibid. S. 148.
tyh, "positive heuristics play the first fiddle in the development of a research program." Fifth, "positive and negative heuristics give together an approximately (implicit) definition of the 'conceptual framework' (and thus language)" 1 .
Thus, positive heuristics are methodological rules that contribute to the positive development of scientific and research programs. These rules prescribe which paths to follow in the course of further research. A positive heuristic includes a number of suggestions on how to modify or develop refuted versions of the research program, how to modernize or refine the "safety belt", what new models should be developed to expand the scope of the program.
Negative heuristics is a set of methodological rules that limit the many possible paths of research, allowing you to avoid roundabout or wrong paths to the truth. She proposes to invent auxiliary hypotheses that form a "safety belt" around the "hard core" of the research program, which must be adapted, modified, or even completely replaced when faced with counterexamples.
The concept of research programs by Imre Lakatos:
I. Lakatos focuses not on theories, as such, but talks about research programs. The research program is a structural-dynamic unit of his model of science.
The research program is a series of changing theories linked by common fundamental principles.
…T 1 T 2 T 3 …………..…T N
Small oval (dotted) - " hard core"NIP. These are signs, ideas, hypotheses that are transferred from one theory (denoted T 1, T 2, etc.) to another in the process of evolution of theories.
For example, the rigid core of the Newtonian program in mechanics was the idea that reality consists of particles of matter that move in absolute space and time in accordance with three well-known Newtonian laws and interact with each other in accordance with the law of universal gravitation
Theories do not replace each other - according to Lakatos, they seem to follow one from the other in the process of development. If the NIP develops progressively, then each subsequent theory describes everything that the previous one described and, in addition, covers an even larger area of knowledge. Lakatos believed that the main sign that NAA is progressive is whether it predicts facts before they are discovered. As soon as a fact is discovered that the NAA did not predict, it can be said that the NAA begins to "become obsolete" and slide into a degenerate stage. In the degenerate stage, the NAA begins to explain the facts after having received them. Come up with some theories to explain, etc. But the bottom line is that the facts are ahead of the NPCs. So the NPC can no longer predict them. As an example of a degenerate NIP, Lakatos mentions Marxism. Lakatos says that Marxism has not predicted a single new fact since 1917. On the contrary, Marxists predicted the absence of disagreements between socialist countries, revolutions in developed industrial countries, impoverishment of the working class, and so on. but none of this happened. And they had to explain the failure of their predictions already faced with it.
Solid oval (second) - " protective belt"NIP. This is a set of different hypotheses, experiments that confirm the validity of the provisions of the NIP. The belt is needed in order to prevent the core from being attacked by critics. That is, it is the protective belt that takes criticism.
Belt formed" negative heuristic" (schematically - a dash-dotted oval, although it may not be depicted). Negative heuristics, however, can be considered as part of a protective belt. It is difficult to unambiguously say what it is. Probably, this is some kind of "desire" of the adherents of the NIP to confirm the validity NAA, to strengthen its position, etc. The result of this desire is the new facts included in the protective belt of the core.
All around this is " positive heuristic"(schematically in the form of a hyperbole). This is also something ephemeral. It is a strategy for choosing priority problems and tasks that scientists must solve. The presence of a positive heuristic allows you to ignore criticism and anomalies for a certain time and engage in constructive research. In addition, as long as there is a positive heuristics, one can avoid criticism for some time, stating that there are higher goals, that "we will get to these minor difficulties in the future."
The growth of scientific knowledge proceeds as follows: first, the protective layer of the solid core is destroyed, and then the turn of the hard core itself comes. Only when the solid core of the program has been destroyed will it be necessary to move from the old research program to the new one.
True, the core is destroyed for a very long time. For example, the solid core of Newton's research program is the three laws of mechanics and the law of gravity. On this basis, many theories related to astronomy, the doctrine of light, strength of materials, and technology were developed. All of them had their own characteristics, contradictions, shortcomings, some of which could not be eliminated, and if so, the protective layer began to crack. It took years and decades before the solid core was destroyed. In addition, the Newtonian scientific program is alive and is being studied and used to this day.
The survivability of the core explains the fact that there are always alternative NPCs. And each scientist has the right to decide for himself which NPC to follow.
Lakatos says that NPCs should not be destroyed by competing NPCs. Competitors should complement, improve, so to speak, each other. For example, Darwin could not explain the so-called "Jenkins' nightmare", and yet his theory was successfully developed. It is known that the Darwinian theory is based on three factors: variability, heredity and selection. Any organism has variability, which is carried out in an undirected way. Because of this, variability can only in a small number of cases be favorable for the adaptation of a given organism to the environment. Some variability is not inherited, some is inherited. Evolutionary value has inherited variability. According to Darwin, those organisms that inherit these kinds of changes that give them a greater opportunity to adapt to the environment have a great opportunity for the future. Such organisms survive better and become the basis for a new evolutionary step.
For Darwin, the laws of inheritance—how variation is inherited—were crucial. In his concept of inheritance, he proceeded from the idea that heredity is carried out in a continuous manner.
Let's imagine that a white man came to the African continent. The signs of white, including "whiteness", will, according to Darwin, be transmitted as follows. If he marries a black woman, then their children will have half the blood of "white". Since there is only one white on the continent, his children will marry blacks. But in this case, the proportion of "whiteness" will asymptotically decrease and eventually disappear. It cannot have evolutionary significance.
Jenkins expressed such considerations. He drew attention to the fact that positive qualities that contribute to the adaptation of the organism to the environment are extremely rare. And consequently, an organism that will have these qualities will certainly meet with an organism that will not have these qualities, and in subsequent generations the positive sign will dissipate. Therefore, it cannot have evolutionary significance.
Darwin could not cope with this task in any way. It is no coincidence that this reasoning is called "Jenkins' nightmare". Darwin's theory had other difficulties as well. And although Darwin's teachings were treated differently at different stages, Darwinism never died, it always had followers. As you know, the modern evolutionary concept - the synthetic theory of evolution - is based on the ideas of Darwin, connected, however, with the Mendelian concept of discrete carriers of heredity, which eliminates the "Jenkins' nightmare".
Thus, the concept of I. Lakatos can be characterized by the following basic concepts and provisions: - research program.
- "hard core" of the research program; - "protective belt" of hypotheses; - positive and negative heuristics.
The NPC is progressive as long as it predicts the facts (this, in fact, is its main value).
The core of an NPC often does not die completely, but undergoes changes under the pressure of competing NPCs.
Each scientist can choose which NPC to follow. Of course, it may seem that the chosen NPC is unpopular, no one supports her, but this is no longer important.
“Negative Heuristics”
The “negative heuristics” of the princely retinue subculture, as well as the pagan culture of the Eastern Slavs, are: the lack of awareness of the “I” of a person as a specific spiritual reality; "reflectivity" as an activity of self-understanding, self-construction of culture; high authority of the theme of "reason", the presence of which in spiritual culture is an indicator of its development.
The formation of the princely retinue subculture did not lead to the development of an individual, spiritual principle in a person. It also lacked an idea of the value of the human person as a spiritual, non-natural being. AT Kievan Rus In the 9th - 10th centuries, a naturalistic attitude to man as a physical, material being prevailed. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky: “... The property of a person in Pravda is valued not cheaper, but even more expensive than the person himself, his health, personal safety. The work of labor for the law is more important than the living instrument of labor - the labor force of man. ... The law valued the security of capital more and provided it more carefully than the personal freedom of a person. The personality of a person is regarded as a mere value and comes in the place of property.” Vladimir Monomakh said about himself: “And he fell a lot from his horse, broke his head twice, and injured his arms and legs - in his youth he injured, not valuing his life, not sparing his head.”
Unlike Western European culture, in which chivalry, an in-depth analysis inner world man in Christian religious and fiction, etc. contributed to the growth of individualistic processes in ancient Russian culture in the IX-X centuries. in general, there was practically no interest in the subjective world of man, the reflexive attitude itself, which found expression in the absence of chivalry and lyrical literature, and in particular love lyrics. In the Russian heroic epic, the motif of the struggle for salvation, the liberation of an individual, sounds very weak. Meanwhile, one of the main goals of the chivalrous movement in Western Europe was to protect the weak and disadvantaged, the unfortunate and those who suffered from the lust for power and self-interest of the strong. In the knight's oath, after defending the faith and religion, the king and the fatherland, the third point is: "The shield of the knights should be a refuge for the weak and oppressed; the courage of the knights should always support the just cause of the one who turns to them." One of the main tasks of the wandering knights was the protection of the oppressed and the unfortunate, the punishment of violence and injustice. The epic heroes fight monsters (the serpent, the Idolish, the Nightingale the Robber), possessing great physical strength, the Tatars and defeat them, thanks to the advantage in physical strength, but in this struggle the humanism of the heroes is abstract. In their exploits, their desire to serve the prince and overcome evil forces is more expressed than the salvation of specific people.
In ancient Russian culture (both in pagan Slavic and princely retinues), the theme of reason, the “high” authority of wisdom, does not sound, while in the most developed world civilizations, respect and admiration for wisdom goes back to deep antiquity. In ancient Russian literature, wisdom, knowledge, reason do not appear in their pure form, but to a large extent with a touch of witchcraft, magic, sorcery. The founder of the state of Kievan Rus Oleg is called prophetic. Princess Olga is traditionally considered a wise ruler. However, her "wisdom" lies in cunning, deceit, infidelity to the word, i.e. in the "virtues" of a barbarian, pagan order, which already Christian-minded writers continue to regard as high virtues.
Like the pagan Slavic, the princely retinue is a subculture whose spiritual reality was limited to existing existence. If in Western European culture in the X-XI centuries. “reflexive” activity unfolds in order to self-understand, overcome barbarism, create a more perfect, sublime spiritual reality, then in ancient Russian culture such processes are practically not visible.
Thus, the mental space of ancient Russian culture by the end of the tenth century. was a complex formation, consisting of two sub-spatial configurations, partially overlapping structures and partially broken value-thinking systems, agricultural pagan Slavic and princely retinue subcultures. Unfortunately, the formation of the princely retinue subculture as an elite culture did not lead to a spiritual outburst. On the contrary, pagan naturalism was further developed, became more sensually rich and diverse. The princely-boyar elite manifested not so much creative and productive as consumer-destructive ability. Changes in the thematic space took place within the framework of pagan, naturalistic value and thought orientations. Universals, coloring the entire spiritual space, were the themes of "prey", "nature", "liberty", "kind", "prince" and "physical strength". Therefore, in the structure of the explanation of spiritual processes in the ancient Russian culture of the 9th - 10th centuries. in the explanatory part (“explanance”), these topics should be used in the function of laws (otherwise the explanation will be incomplete). An essential role in overcoming the barbarism of the Germanic tribes in Western Europe was played by the external influence of ancient culture. The relative isolation of the territory of Kievan Rus, the aggressiveness and “naturalistic Russocentrism” of Old Russian culture prevented the expansion of cultural ties with Byzantium and Western Europe, its inclusion in a single European cultural and creative process.
It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that the study of the formation and development of ancient Russian culture until the 11th century. does not provide grounds for asserting the existence of Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian cultures as specific value-thinking realities. The fundamental, initial, defining criterion for the existence of a certain culture is the presence of a specific value-thematic reality (“spirit” of culture). The language of the people, ethnos as an expression of the organic unity of the people are concomitant, but still secondary formations, because in the absence of a specific mental reality, the existence of language as its reflection and ethnos is impossible. Therefore, it can be argued that the isolation of these cultures is not possible. Consequently, their existence did not take place, however, as well as the language and ethnic groups.
Meanwhile, the assertion of the existence of the Old Russian culture, consisting of the agricultural pagan Slavic and princely retinue subcultures, does not provide grounds for asserting the existence of the Old Russian nationality. Predominantly naturalistic, “tribal” thinking dominated throughout the history of Kievan Rus, on the vast expanses of which many peoples lived. The emergence of the Kiev state did not significantly change their lives. Tribal formations became lands, but basically tribal self-identification remained the same. land, probably perceived himself as Pereyaslovtsy or, moreover, representatives of one or another city or locality.A thin layer of princes, boyars, combatants was a largely closed formation, to a large extent was cut off from the local population.Since the centralizing, integrating state activity this layer was small (actually reduced to the receipt of tribute), then there is no need to talk about the emergence of spiritual unity. One cannot confuse the unity of the level of existence, the analysis of which was carried out, and the unity of self-consciousness, the consciousness of "We". as a combination of all the peoples of Kievan Rus, of course, there was not. Unless sporadically, during the campaigns against Byzantium, the dews were united by a single spirit. Therefore, in this sense, there was nothing to disintegrate. There was a persistent consciousness of "We" - the people of Kiev, Chernigov, Novgorod, Polotsk, Vladimir, Galicia, etc. In the absence of written language, one should keep in mind the conventionality of using the phrase "Old Russian language". This phrase denotes the language of not a single people, but of many tribes, which has retained in the language, way of life kinship from the Proto-Slavic unity.
Moreover, this community in the IX-X centuries. goes beyond the borders of the Kievan state. In a developed multi-ethnic state, a supra-ethnic level of unity arises: in the Roman Empire - the Romans, in Byzantium - the Romans, in the USSR - the Soviet people. At the same time, the ethnic level of consciousness is preserved (it can be traced very clearly among Roman and Byzantine historians). In the amorphous, barbarian state of Kievan Rus, the supra-ethnic level was not formed at all. Therefore, it is not necessary and inappropriate to use the term “Old Russian nationality” in the analysis, which would otherwise be an obvious modernization.
Thus, the arrival of the Varangians to Russia and the socio-economic differentiation of the ancient Russian society led to the formation of the class of warriors, and in the mental plan - the princely-druzhina subspace, which did not differ significantly in its value-thematic structure and arose through the transformation of the FCS of the pagan East Slavic culture. Two genetically and thematically related mental subspatial configurations were formed, having a common value-thematic center (FCS).
Ancient Russian culture, consisting of agricultural pagan Slavic and princely retinue subcultures, on the eve of the adoption of Christianity, remained a pagan, barbaric culture, the spiritual space of which was limited to naturalistic values. The “existential” way of functioning of cultures prevented the emergence of a professional culture that formed a “reflexive” attitude and, thus, leading beyond the limits of existing being into the area of “pure spirit”, constructing a multi-layered value-thinking reality, etc.
In preparing this work, materials from the site www.studentu.ru were used.
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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE HEURISTICS
POSITIVE HEURISTICS
« In his studies of the nature of scientific discovery, Imre Lakatos introduced the concepts of positive and negative heuristics. Within the scientific school, some rules prescribe which paths to follow in the course of further reasoning. These rules form the positive heuristic. Other rules tell you which paths to avoid. This is -NEGATIVE HEURISTICS.
EXAMPLE. The "positive heuristic" of a research program can also be formulated as a "metaphysical principle". For example, the Newtonian program can be stated in the following formula: "The planets are rotating tops of approximately spherical shape, attracted to each other." No one has ever exactly followed this principle: planets have not only gravitational properties, they have, for example, electromagnetic characteristics that affect movement. Therefore, a positive heuristic is, generally speaking, more flexible than a negative one. Moreover, it happens from time to time that when a research program enters a regressive phase, a small revolution or creative push in its positive heuristics can move it back into a progressive shift. Therefore, it is better to separate the "hard core" from the more flexible metaphysical principles expressing positive heuristics.
I. Lakatos, Methodology of research programs, M., "AST", "Ermak", 2003, p. 83. Source: http://msk.treko.ru/show_dict_201
NEGATIVE HEURISTICS
« Within a community or school of thought, there are rules that explicitly or implicitly prescribe which paths of research should be avoided. This was called the researcher of scientific creativity Imre Lakatos negative heuristics. On the contrary, the rules to be used are called by himPOSITIVE HEURISTICS.
“The negative heuristic according to Imre Lakatos forbids, in the process of checking research programs, to doubt the correctness of this “hard core” when faced with anomalies and counterexamples. Instead, she proposes to invent auxiliary hypotheses that form a "safety or protective belt" around the core of the research program, which must be adapted, modified, or even completely replaced when confronted with counterexamples. For its part, positive heuristics includes a number of assumptions about the modification or development of refuted variants of the research program, about the modification or refinement of the "protective belt", about new models that need to be developed to expand the scope of the program.
Baksansky O.E., Kucher E.N., Cognitive sciences: from knowledge to action, M., KomKniga, 2005, p. 17.
EXAMPLE. “The Chinese are considered a reserved and ceremonial people. In fact, they express emotions violently and often laugh. Oddly enough, their sense of humor is close to American: the same simple tricks cause laughter. True, the Chinese have zones that are closed to humor - these are parents and rulers. According to Confucian norms, both are not subject to criticism. The Chinese willingly laugh at foreigners, which the Japanese never do.”
Billevich V.V., School of wit or how to learn to joke, M., "Williams", 2005, p. 271.
EXAMPLE. “... the persistent search for new structures - as integral forms for large semantic systems - is characteristic of any ambitious work, and not just science fiction literature. And, finally, we must indicate which transformations of the material are fundamentally impermissible. Over the realm of literature, like the sky above the earth, stretches a law that none of the authors has the right to violate: until the end of the work, the same scheme that opened it. You can call this law, if you wish, the law of stabilization of the ontology of discovery (or beginning) or the principle of invariance of the rules of the literary game to which the author invites readers. Just as there is no such game in chess that, during the game, would turn into checkers or even a game of buttons, so there are no texts that would begin like a fairy tale and end like a realistic novel. Works that differ in such gradients of variability can appear at best as parodies with a genological addressee, for example, as a story about an orphan who finds a chest of gold coins, but because they are fake, goes to prison (as about this already was told above), or the story of the Sleeping Princess, awakened by the prince, who turns out to be a secret pimp and gives her to a brothel. (Such anti-tales were written, for example, by Mark Twain.) But it is impossible to seriously engage in such creativity: after all, there can be no crime story in which a criminal, instead of a detective, is tracked down by a dragon; there are no such epic narratives in which the heroes first eat bread and butter and leave the house through the door, and then they can go through the walls to collect manna from heaven for food. What is the highest law forbidding incest for all cultures, the taboo of “plot incest” has become for all literary genres - that is, such a transformation of the course of events, which in its scale goes beyond the initially established ontology (empirical, “spiritualistic”, etc. .). Intuitively, all authors know that it is impossible to do this, but in practice, “plot perversions” sometimes happen to them. Most often, such a misfortune occurs as a change in the scheme of the plausibility of events; for example, the hero is relieved from the beginning of danger by forces that are still empirically plausible, but then more and more inclined towards magic; the postulate of empiricism is not formally violated, but in fact the author's vacillation shakes it. In the field of verism of collision, the plot begins to “carry” to the post-empirical coast even more easily, where the narrative is based on events unknown to the experience of neither the author nor the reader (this is what is typical for science fiction). Then "incest" is difficult to prove, since we lack intuition as a criterion for the plausibility of what is happening. Another thing is when the author transfers the plot to an environment that the reader knows better than the author himself; for example, the author, as a person who did not make German occupation starts writing about her. And the reader who has encountered it in the past constantly finds in the description unintentional errors or even distortions of real events.
