Universities of the Middle Ages. Medieval University There were two types of disputes in medieval universities.
Universities arose in the Middle Ages. It is a mistake to say that the university as a form of educational institution existed earlier. There were magnificent Confucian schools of the “semicircular pool school” back in the time of the Tang empire, the Pandidakterion high school in Constantinople operated from the 9th century, and the Al-Karaouin school in Morocco has been operating from the 9th century to the present day, but all this is by nature not universities. This does not detract from their glory and dignity at all, but the university is something very specific.
1. How Universities Arise
Universities arose in the 11th century, when the West entered a period of amazing growth, when the Middle Ages in its classical sense, with all the attributes of a feudal society, set in. The beginning of this period is marked by the Gregorian reform and the strengthening of the position of the papacy. Then there is the rise of cities, the assertion of senior relations. It is against the backdrop of these processes that university corporations emerge.
No one founded the first universities, they arise on their own. Therefore, the statements “Philip Augustus founded the University of Paris in 1200” or “Frederick Barbarossa founded the University of Bologna” are fundamentally wrong. These schools arose on their own, having acquired the only conceivable then and very convenient form of mutual oath ( conjuratio), which quickly became known as university- a community of equal people who brought each other a mutual oath, which possessed what would later be called a legal entity. Universitas- this is not only an association of masters and students, any city commune, any corporation of artisans was university. Subsequently, at the beginning of the XIII century, this term began to be used only in relation to educational organizations.
We cannot speak of existence in XI and XII centuries universities, rather about pre-university education, studios, training centers. This is a very important, interesting, rich in traditions era. At this time, the reception of Roman law was made, canon law was created, and rational theology was born.
2. The life of a new type of intellectual
In previous periods, intellectuals lived either at the court of a prince, emperor, king, or, more often, in monasteries. Intellectuals of a new type lived in the city and taught to all comers, who were becoming more and more. It is no coincidence that the science that arose was called school science, or scholasticism. The thinkers of that era took the formal logic of Aristotle and applied it to new areas of knowledge. A system was created that sets the algorithm of actions in cases where the opinions of authorities on a particular issue differed. This was extremely important, since nothing was done in the Middle Ages without recourse to authorities.
Intellectual new formation was not a practitioner, but a specialist in the field of thinking. It was not necessary to know Roman law well in order to judge the peasants in the English Manor: society lived according to other laws. Wounds and fractures were better treated not by a connoisseur of Hippocrates and Galen, but by a poorly educated barber surgeon. A highly learned theologian could not captivate his flock with a passionate sermon, as did a simple Franciscan monk. But a person who took a university course was able to think logically - this gave him the opportunity to formulate a problem and cope with any task. Since this period, the transformation of the world has gone by leaps and bounds.
3. Formation of university corporations
Universities arose at the beginning of the 13th century. Paris, Bologna, Montpellier, Oxford are the places where they arose on their own. What is a corporation and affiliation? The German scientist Exle gave a very good definition: "a corporation is a community of the living and the dead." The first university charter of 1215 in Paris gives a very large place to the regulations for the funeral of masters and students, clearly prescribing what and how each member of the corporation should do.
This logic is very clear. What is the most important thing in the life of a medieval person? Death and how he will leave this life. The further existence of his soul depends on this. If he dies in a foreign land, who will take care of a righteous death? These are the people who took the mutual oath. They took a mutual oath to live in peace, not to conflict. And for this it was necessary to determine the order of lectures, exams, rules of conduct, uniforms (what is now called a dress code). And, most importantly, to guarantee mutual assistance. So developed organizational form, which quickly began to replicate. Secular or ecclesiastical authorities simply took the ready-made form of charter and opened new universities.
The status of university corporations was based on independence from the local secular authorities, representatives of the king and, most importantly, from the local spiritual authorities. Initially, the bishop controlled the teaching, issuing permission to teach ( licentia docendi). After the establishment of the university, the bishop's chancellor continued, with the permission of the Pope, to issue permits in a new form - licentia ubique docendi, that is, the right to teach everywhere in Christendom. This right was given only after an examination conducted by a corporation of equal people. It was she who decided whether the applicant was worthy to enter the corporation or not worthy, whether he was worthy of conferring the title of bachelor, master, doctor or not worthy. And the chancellor only agreed with this decision and issued permission. This can be called the basis of Western European intellectualism.
Undoubtedly, European intellectualism as an autonomous corporation exists with the permission of the authorities. If there is no charter issued by the Pope (less often by the emperor, sometimes by the king who tried to make himself independent of the emperor), then there is no university.
4. Social magic
I like to ask: “Tell me, please, who was Thomas Aquinas by social origin?”. And, as a rule, people cannot answer this question, although his father was an earl. Who was the origin of Jean Gerson? His parents were peasants, and of rather low status. Who was Erasmus of Rotterdam? He was illegitimate, his father is a priest. This is important: entering the world of people of knowledge, a person, as it were, broke with his former environment (although origin was always extremely important for medieval society), acquiring a new social status. The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu called this moment social magic: there was one person, but there was another. From my point of view, the ability to award degrees is the most important thing that constitutes the essence of the university corporation. This ability was perfectly conveyed by Soviet folklore: "You may not be a scientist, but you must be a candidate."
5. University logic
Over the years, the situation changed: the independence of the university weakened, the role of secular authorities became stronger, but the universities still had great authority, which allowed them to act as advisers to monarchs. What we call university culture is forming very quickly: a special type of thinking, folklore, habits, discursive practices that are characteristic of university people. This type of culture survived the Middle Ages and set a certain type of communication for the universities of modern times. Thus, the indispensable medieval rampage of students is inherited by the German universities of the Enlightenment. Students- burshi they were simply obliged to behave defiantly towards the philistine townsfolk. As you know, M. V. Lomonosov mastered the manners of the Bursh so well that only a miracle saved him from serious troubles in Germany, and the quietest person Pierre Bezukhov ties the bear to the quarter, demonstrating his involvement in the German traditions of university culture. A similar code of behavior is miraculously reproduced in other eras and in other regions.
The logic of the corporation, which asserted that “our degrees are our inalienable right, no one can take them away from us,” was also characteristic of Soviet scientists. It was this that became an important argument for the refusal of the Academy of Sciences to deprive Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov of his scientific title.
This logic is inherent in both modern universities and academies. To undertake their reform without understanding their medieval nature is rather strange. This does not mean the preservation of the archaic principle. But successive university reformers such as Wilhelm von Humboldt and John Newman looked to the origins of university autonomy and corporatism.
6. The spread of the university form to the world
Universities have spread all over the world - this can be seen as European expansion. If we compare with this other social and political institutions exported by Europe (European parliamentarism, freedom of speech, the doctrine of human rights) and taking root far from everywhere, then the triumphal procession of universities around the world looks more than convincing. Today there is no such country where there is no university, and the best are often located outside Europe. That is, the university turned out to be a surprisingly tenacious form, invented in the great era of the XII-XIII centuries, from my point of view, in the golden age for European civilization.
7. History of the study of university culture
There is a lot of current research on the history of the university, but the most interesting things were said by the French medievalist Jacques Le Goff, his critics, his supporters in the 50s-60s of the 20th century. Interesting is the attempt to include Russian universities in the context of European history - these are the works of A. Yu. Andreev on the transfer of the university idea to Russia, the works of E. A. Vishlenkova and her co-authors, which show from the inside how university traditions took root and formed in Russia.
Promising will be research on the history of universities, which, unfortunately, we do not have. But the last generalizing work in Russian on history European universities was published in 1896 (though reprinted in 2012). It remains to be hoped that the situation will change soon: the history of medieval universities is in demand in our country today more than ever.
Andreev A. Yu. Russian universities XVIII - first half of XIX century in the context of the university history of Europe M., 2009.
Vishlenkova E.A., Galiullina R.Kh., Ilyina K.A. Russian professors: university corporatism or professional solidarity. M., 2012.
De Libera A. Medieval thinking. M., 2004.
Le Goff J. Intellectuals in the Middle Ages. SPB, 2003.
Suvorov N. S. Medieval universities, M., 1896, 2nd ed. M., 2012.
In the XII century. as a result of the increased need for scientific knowledge and the people who possess it - scientists - the process of education began on the basis of cathedral schools in the largest cities of Western Europe, higher schools - universities. Initially, the concept of "university" (from the Latin universitas - set) meant a corporation of teachers, professors and students, "scholars", whose goal is to study and increase a single Christian knowledge.
The first universities appeared in Bologna (1158), Paris (1215), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1206), Lisbon (1290). It was in these educational institutions that the basic principles of academic autonomy were formulated, democratic rules of governance were developed high school and her inner life. Thus, universities had a number of privileges granted to them by the Pope: issuing permits for teaching, awarding academic degrees (previously it was the exclusive right of the church), exempting students from military service, and the educational institution itself from taxes, etc. rector and deans.
Usually the structure of the university included four faculties: artistic, legal, medical and theological. In medieval higher schools, a hierarchy was established: the theological faculty was considered the senior, then the legal, medical and artistic faculties. On this basis, the artistic faculty, where the “seven liberal arts” were studied, is called junior or preparatory in some historical and pedagogical studies, however, the rules of the university did not provide for this. The theological faculty studied mainly Holy Bible and "Sentences" of Peter Lombard (beginning of the 12th century - 1160), the training lasted about 12 years, students, continuing their studies, could teach themselves and hold church positions, at the end of their studies they were awarded the title of master of theology, and then a licentiate (teacher, admitted to lecture, but has not yet defended his doctoral dissertation).
The Faculty of Law considered Roman and Catholic law, after four years of study, students received a bachelor's degree, and after another three years - a licentiate. Education at the Faculty of Medicine included the study of the works of Hippocrates, Avicenna, Galen and other famous doctors. After four years of study, students were awarded a bachelor's degree, and for two years they had to practice medicine under the guidance of a master. Then, after five years of study, they were allowed to take examinations for the title of licentiate.
On the basis of the school course of the trivium, students of the artistic faculty studied the quadrium, especially geometry and astronomy in detail, in addition, they considered scholasticism, the works of Aristotle, and philosophy in the course of study. After two years, students received a bachelor's degree, master's training lasted from three to ten years. The main goal of education in all faculties was the achievement of scientific degrees.
Classes at universities lasted throughout the day (from 5 am to 8 pm). The main form of education was lectures by the professor. Due to the insufficient number of books and manuscripts, this process was laborious: the professor repeated the same phrase several times so that the students could memorize it. The low productivity of training is partly due to its duration. Once a week, a debate was held, aimed at developing independent thinking, students were required to attend debates.
The student's duties included attending lectures: obligatory daytime and repeated evening lectures. An important feature of the universities of that era is disputes. The teacher assigned a topic. His assistant - a bachelor - led the discussion, that is, he answered questions and commented on the speeches. If necessary, the master came to the aid of the bachelor. Once or twice a year, debates were held “about anything” (without a strictly defined topic). In this case, burning scientific and philosophical problems were often discussed. The participants in the disputes behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts.
As a rule, a great career awaited a university graduate. Yesterday's students became scribes, notaries, judges, lawyers, prosecutors.
"The medieval university was undoubtedly a product of Western European medieval civilization. In a certain sense, some of the educational institutions of classical antiquity were its predecessors: the philosophical school in Athens (IV century BC), the school of law in Beirut (III - VI centuries), Imperial University in Constantinople (424 - 1453) Their organization and the program of individual courses are reminiscent of medieval ones.Thus, in Beirut there was a compulsory five-year academic course with certain cycles, in Constantinople teachers of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and law were gathered in one center. no less in antiquity, a number of necessary prerequisites were missing:
1) there was no universal religion - Christianity;
2) there was no need for a mass release of specialists;
3) the separation of political power from religion has not yet been observed; secular power has not been formed yet;
4) there was no detailed specialization of knowledge;
5) dominated Agriculture and etc.
The Middle Ages also did not know the significance of the university, which we use now. For the 20th century, as a rule, the university was the totality of all sciences, as opposed to special higher educational institutions. In the Middle Ages, the term "universitas" meant not the universality of learning, but any organized union, any corporation. The words "corpus", collegium, were also used to designate them. These associations thus included people with common interests and independent legal status. In Bologna, Padua, Montpellier, there were in fact several universities, but they considered themselves parts of one "universitas". Even the city was called the university of citizens (universitas civium), any craft workshop. Only in the XIV - XV centuries. the university will become a separate academic institution. Schools (studium) were distinguished from universities. They were divided into:
1. general (generale), that is, not local, but intended for all representatives of nations, who, thanks to acquired academic degrees had the right to teach in any area of Christendom (facultas docendi ubique terrarum);
2. studium universale;
3. studium commune;
4. studium soempne, i.e. ordinary.
...There were the following types of schools:
1. Monastic:
a) internal schools for boys preparing for monastic vows;
b) external schools for lay boys.
2. Cathedral or cathedral - at episcopal residences:
a) for the training of future clergymen:
b) for the laity.
3. Parish, which were kept by priests.
Parish and external monastic and cathedral schools were attended by boys aged 7-15. They studied reading, writing, counting, church singing.
By the XIV century. the common name is approved - universitas scolarium et magistrorum. By this time, the concept of the university was taking shape. The university had a number of rights and privileges:
1) study not only the seven liberal arts, but also law (civil and canonical), theology, medicine. In medieval universities, as a rule, there were four faculties: the junior - preparatory, it is also the faculty of the seven liberal arts, artistic, artistic, philosophical; seniors - medical, legal, theological;
2) the right to receive part of the beneficiary church income for education;
3) a holder of a degree from one of the schools to teach at any other university without additional examinations (ius ubique docendi);
4) special jurisdiction for schoolchildren by choice or before teachers or the local bishop instead of the general jurisdiction of city judges;
5) the right to issue their own laws, statutes and orders regulating the remuneration of teachers, teaching techniques and methods, disciplinary norms, the procedure for conducting exams, etc.
There were other privileges, which were mostly local in nature. Thus, we have, in fact, the idea of a "scientific workshop". Everywhere the general designation "studentes" began to take shape: this was the name not only for students, but for everyone who "studies", that is, devotes himself to scientific pursuits, teachers and students.
Thus, these associations were organized on the model of craft and merchant guilds and sought to achieve corporatism, that is, the right approved by the highest authority to have common property, elected officials, statutes drawn up by the members of the association themselves, a press, and their own court. The struggle for these rights dragged on for a long time. The new word "university" caused the same hostility as the word "commune".
There were three main forms of teaching.
1. A complete, systematic presentation of the subject, according to the program set out in the statutes, was called lectio at certain hours. These lectures were divided into ordinary (obligatory) and extraordinary (additional). The fact is that in the Middle Ages, schoolchildren did not attend a course in a particular science, say, a course in philosophy or Roman law, etc. Then they said that such and such a teacher reads or such and such a student listens to such and such a book. Roger Bacon in the thirteenth century formulated it this way: "If someone knows the text, he knows everything that relates to the science about which this text speaks." Some books were considered more important and obligatory (ordinary) for the student, others less important and optional (extraordinary). The difference in lectures also led to the division of teachers into ordinary and extraordinary. For ordinary lectures, as a rule, morning hours (from dawn to 9 o'clock in the morning) were appointed, as more convenient and designed for more fresh forces of listeners, and extraordinary lectures were read in the afternoon hours (from 6 to 10 o'clock in the evening). The lecture lasted 1 - 2 hours. Before the start of the lecture, the teacher made a brief introduction, in which he determined the nature of the work on the book and did not shy away from self-promotion. The main task of the teacher was to compare different versions of the texts and give the necessary explanations. The statutes forbade students from requiring repetition or slow reading. Schoolchildren had to come to lectures with books. This was done in order to force each listener to directly get acquainted with the text. Books at that time were very expensive, so schoolchildren rented texts. Already in the XIII century. universities began to accumulate manuscripts, copy them and create their own exemplary texts. Audiences in the modern sense of the word did not exist for a long time. Each teacher read to a certain circle of his students in any rented room or at home. Bologna professors were among the first to arrange school premises, and from the 14th century. cities began to create public buildings for auditoriums. Schoolchildren, as a rule, were grouped in one place. In Paris, it was the street of Straw (Foire), so named because the students sat on the floor, on the straw, at the feet of the teacher. Later, a semblance of desks appeared - long tables, at which up to 20 people could fit. The department began to settle down on a dais, under a canopy.
2. Repetitio is a detailed explanation of a separate text from different angles, taking into account all possible doubts and objections. At the University of Paris, it was more often a check of all the sources related to a particular problem in various manuscripts and a review of the relevant comments in various essays. In German universities, they took place in the form of a dialogue between a teacher and a student. The teacher asked questions and judged the student's progress by the answers. There was another form - the repetition of part of what was read. At the same time, they were preparing for disputes.
3. One of the most common forms of teaching was the dispute (disputatio). The leadership of the universities attached great importance to them. It was disputes that were supposed to teach schoolchildren the art of dispute, the protection of acquired knowledge. Dialectics came to the fore in them.
The most common method of conducting disputes was the method proposed by Pierre Abelard pro et contra, sic et non (for and against, yes and no). Every two weeks, one of the masters gave a speech on the broadest possible topic and, in conclusion, named theses or questions that were to be the subject of a dispute, then for several days he collected all the pros and cons from the schoolchildren. The most curious and most solemn was the disputation "about anything" (disputatio de quodlibet) that took place at the preparatory faculty. Discussion topics were varied:
1. Dispute held by Matteo Aquasparta in the 13th century. on the topic "Is the necessary existence due to the knowledge of this thing, or can something that does not exist be the object of the intellect?", reflected the struggle between two philosophical trends - nominalism and realism.
2. It was necessary to prove or disprove the Aristotelian syllogism "All people are animals. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is an animal."
3. The whole day there could be a dispute about whether the preaching of the word of God could be abandoned due to the prohibition of secular authorities.
4. Is it possible to bind demons and the forces of darkness with a spell?
5. Is a duel and tournament allowed according to canonical laws?
Joking questions were also allowed, but not reprehensible in nature (although from the point of view of our morality they may seem such): about the loyalty of concubines to priests; the attitude to such a plot was quite seriously discussed: the priest visited the daughter of a baker, but was forced to flee from a competitor, ran into a pig barn, where the baker entered and asked: "Who is there?" Pop replied: "No one but us"; can there be more than one angel in the same place?
The university authorities strove for academicism in disputes. Harsh language, shouting and insults were forbidden. Nevertheless, disputes often turned into battles between masters and scholars. The oak barrier did not save either.
Upon graduation, the student passed an examination, which was taken by a group of masters from each nation, headed by a dean. The student must prove that he has read the recommended books and participated in the required number of disputes (six for his master, three university-wide). They were also interested in the behavior of the student. Then he was allowed to a public debate, which was supposed to answer all the questions. The award was a first bachelor's degree. For two years the bachelor assisted the master and received the "right to teach" (licentio docendi), becoming a "licentiate". Six months later, he became a master and had to give a solemn lecture to bachelors and masters, take an oath, arrange a feast.
There was no branch in the Middle Ages higher education from the average, which is why universities had junior and senior faculties. After studying Latin in primary school a schoolboy (scolarius) at 15-16, and sometimes even at 12-13 years old, entered the university at the preparatory faculty.
Here he studied the "seven liberal arts" (septem artes liberales), which consisted of two cycles - "trivium" (trivium - "crossroads of three paths of knowledge": grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and "quadrivium" (quadrivium - "crossroads of four paths of knowledge ": music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy). Only after studying "philosophy" was the right to enter the senior faculties: legal, medical, theological.
Rhetoric is the science of how to speak correctly and, to a lesser extent, write and compose not only speeches but also documents. The highest authority was the work of Cicero.
dialectic or logic. The ability to think logically and understand issues, trying to make out the pros and cons as much as possible. Aristotle was the supreme authority here. Abelard played a major role in its formation.
It took an average of five to seven years to study at the Faculty of Liberal Arts. This period could be shorter or longer, depending on the individual student and local traditions. Those who studied for the first 2 years received a bachelor's degree, who full course Master of Liberal Arts. Now they had the right to teach at their own faculty or continue their education at other Faculty of Liberal Arts, about a third of the students graduated. Education in medicine and law took about another six years. They studied theology for at least 8 years. And more often training was delayed for 15-16 years.
With one teacher, people of the most different ages, and the level of training could vary greatly. There was also no firm concept of how much this or that student should study. The term of study could change in any direction. The reasons could be both the ability of a particular student and his position.
The study sessions at the university were designed for the entire academic year. The division into semesters or semesters appears only towards the end of the Middle Ages in German universities. True, the academic year was divided into two unequal parts: a large ordinary study period (magnus ordinarius) from October, and sometimes from mid-September until Easter, as well as a "small ordinary study period (ordinarius parvus) from Easter until the end of June. Curriculum , however, was compiled for the entire academic year.
There were three main forms of teaching.
A complete, systematic presentation of the subject, according to the program set out in the statutes, at certain hours was called lectio. These lectures were divided into ordinary (obligatory) and extraordinary (additional). The fact is that in the Middle Ages, schoolchildren did not attend a course in a particular science, say, a course in philosophy or Roman law, etc. Then they said that such and such a teacher was reading or such and such a student was listening to such and such a book. Roger Bacon put it this way in the 13th century: "If anyone knows a text, he knows everything that pertains to the science that the text talks about." Some books were considered more important and obligatory (ordinary) for the student, others less important and optional (extraordinary). The difference in lectures also led to the division of teachers into ordinary and extraordinary. For ordinary lectures, as a rule, morning hours (from dawn to 9 o'clock in the morning) were appointed, as more convenient and designed for more fresh forces of listeners, and extraordinary lectures were read in the afternoon hours (from 6 to 10 o'clock in the evening). The lecture lasted 1 - 2 hours. Before the start of the lecture, the teacher made a brief introduction, in which he determined the nature of the work on the book and did not shy away from self-promotion. The main task of the teacher was to compare different versions of the texts and give the necessary explanations. The statutes forbade students from requiring repetition or slow reading. Schoolchildren had to come to lectures with books. This was done in order to force each listener to directly get acquainted with the text. Books at that time were very expensive, so schoolchildren rented texts. Already in the 13th century, universities began to accumulate manuscripts, copy them and create their own exemplary texts. Audiences in the modern sense of the word did not exist for a long time. Each teacher read to a certain circle of his students in any rented room or at home. Bologna professors were among the first to arrange school premises, and from the 14th century, cities began to create public buildings for classrooms. One way or another, schoolchildren, as a rule, were grouped in one place. In Paris, it was the street of Straw (Foire), so named because the students sat on the floor, on the straw, at the feet of the teacher. Later, a semblance of desks appeared - long tables, at which up to 20 people could fit. The department began to settle down on a dais, under a canopy.
Repetitio is a detailed explanation of a single text from different angles, taking into account all possible doubts and objections. At the University of Paris, it was more often a check of all the sources related to a particular problem in various manuscripts and a review of the relevant comments in various essays. In German universities, they took place in the form of a dialogue between a teacher and a student. The teacher asked questions and judged the student's progress by the answers. There was another form - the repetition of part of what was read. At the same time, they were preparing for disputes.
Disputatio was one of the most widespread forms of teaching. The leadership of the universities attached great importance to them. It was disputes that were supposed to teach schoolchildren the art of dispute, the protection of acquired knowledge. Dialectics came to the fore in them.
At the end of the course, the student passed the exam. It was hosted by a group of masters from each nation headed by a dean. The student must prove that he has read the recommended books and participated in the required number of disputes (6 from his master's and 3 university-wide). They were also interested in the behavior of the student. Then he was allowed to a public debate, which was supposed to answer all the questions. The award was a first bachelor's degree. For two years the bachelor assisted the master and received the "right to teach" (licentio docendi), becoming a "licentiate". Six months later, he became a master and had to give a solemn lecture to bachelors and masters, take an oath, arrange a feast.
In closing this chapter, it makes sense to recall a little about the higher sciences. There were three of them Theology, Jurisprudence and Medicine.
Theology (Theology).
The main teaching was conducted on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, which included the opinions of the most authoritative theologians on various controversial points in the Bible.
Jurisprudence.
Undoubtedly, the largest number of students who moved to higher courses specialized in this discipline.
It should be noted that there were several sources of laws. This is:
Canon law, based on the decisions of church councils, popes and other hierarchs of the church.
Roman law. The main one here was the code of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. In this code, great attention was paid to various types of property.
But in practical activities lawyers also needed to know local laws.
Various feudal rulers, such as the king of France, issued their own laws. In general, each more or less independent sovereign, whether a feudal lord or a city, could establish his own rules and laws. Relations between them were also regulated by laws, whether it was the norms of service, the number and size of various requisitions, the division of various powers, etc.
As a result, each province had its own local laws that could copy or conflict with common law.
The medicine
Medicine included the doctrine of the four fluids that predominate in man - blood, mucus, bile and black bile. It was believed that diseases stemmed from a violation of the ratio of these fluids.
Bloodletting and enemas played an important role in the treatment. Various incense was widely used.
In the Middle Ages, there was no separation of higher education from secondary education, which is why junior and senior faculties existed at universities. After studying Latin in elementary school, the schoolboy (scolarius) at 15-16, and sometimes even at 12-13, entered the university at the preparatory faculty. Here he studied the "seven liberal arts" (septem artes liberales), which consisted of two cycles - "trivium" (trivium - "crossroads of three paths of knowledge": grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and "quadrivium" (quadrivium - "crossroads of four paths of knowledge ": music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy). Only after studying "philosophy" was the right to enter the senior faculties: legal, medical, theological.
Rhetoric is the science of how to speak correctly and, to a lesser extent, write and compose not only speeches but also documents. The highest authority was the work of Cicero.
dialectic or logic. The ability to think logically and understand issues, trying to make out the pros and cons as much as possible. Aristotle was the supreme authority here. Abelard played a major role in its formation.
It took an average of five to seven years to study at the Faculty of Liberal Arts. This period could be shorter or longer, depending on the individual student and local traditions. Those who studied for the first 2 years received a bachelor's degree, who completed the full course of the master of liberal arts. Now they had the right to teach at their own faculty or continue their education at other Faculty of Liberal Arts, about a third of the students graduated. Education in medicine and law took about another six years. They studied theology for at least 8 years. And more often training was delayed for 15-16 years.
People of different ages could study together with one teacher, and the level of training could vary greatly. There was also no firm concept of how much this or that student should study. The term of study could change in any direction. The reasons could be both the ability of a particular student and his position.
Let's look at the example of the preparatory faculty, what was the learning process.
Classes at the university were designed for the entire academic year. The division into semesters or semesters appears only towards the end of the Middle Ages in German universities. True, the academic year was divided into two unequal parts: a large ordinary study period (magnus ordinarius) from October, and sometimes from mid-September until Easter, as well as a "small ordinary study period (ordinarius parvus) from Easter until the end of June. Curriculum , however, was compiled for the entire academic year.
There were three main forms of teaching.
A complete, systematic presentation of the subject, according to the program set out in the statutes, at certain hours was called lectio. These lectures were divided into ordinary (obligatory) and extraordinary (additional). The fact is that in the Middle Ages, schoolchildren did not attend a course in a particular science, say, a course in philosophy or Roman law, etc. Then they said that such and such a teacher reads or such and such a student listens to such and such a book. Roger Bacon put it this way in the 13th century: "If anyone knows a text, he knows everything that pertains to the science that the text talks about." Some books were considered more important and obligatory (ordinary) for the student, others less important and optional (extraordinary). The difference in lectures also led to the division of teachers into ordinary and extraordinary. For ordinary lectures, as a rule, morning hours (from dawn to 9 o'clock in the morning) were appointed, as more convenient and designed for more fresh forces of listeners, and extraordinary lectures were read in the afternoon hours (from 6 to 10 o'clock in the evening). The lecture lasted 1 - 2 hours. Before the start of the lecture, the teacher made a brief introduction, in which he determined the nature of the work on the book and did not shy away from self-promotion. The main task of the teacher was to compare different versions of the texts and give the necessary explanations. The statutes forbade students from requiring repetition or slow reading. Schoolchildren had to come to lectures with books. This was done in order to force each listener to directly get acquainted with the text. Books at that time were very expensive, so schoolchildren rented texts. Already in the 13th century, universities began to accumulate manuscripts, copy them and create their own exemplary texts. Audiences in the modern sense of the word did not exist for a long time. Each teacher read to a certain circle of his students in any rented room or at home. Bologna professors were among the first to arrange school premises, and from the 14th century, cities began to create public buildings for classrooms. One way or another, schoolchildren, as a rule, were grouped in one place. In Paris, it was the street of Straw (Foire), so named because the students sat on the floor, on the straw, at the feet of the teacher. Later, a semblance of desks appeared - long tables, at which up to 20 people could fit. The department began to settle down on a dais, under a canopy.
Repetitio is a detailed explanation of a single text from different angles, taking into account all possible doubts and objections. At the University of Paris, it was more often a check of all the sources related to a particular problem in various manuscripts and a review of the relevant comments in various essays. In German universities, they took place in the form of a dialogue between a teacher and a student. The teacher asked questions and judged the student's progress by the answers. There was another form - the repetition of part of what was read. At the same time, they were preparing for disputes.
Disputatio was one of the most widespread forms of teaching. The leadership of the universities attached great importance to them. It was disputes that were supposed to teach schoolchildren the art of dispute, the protection of acquired knowledge. Dialectics came to the fore in them.
The most common method of conducting disputes was the method proposed by Pierre Abelard pro et contra, sic et non (for and against, yes and no). Every two weeks, one of the masters gave a speech on the broadest possible topic and, in conclusion, named theses or questions that were to be the subject of a dispute, then for several days he collected all the pros and cons from the schoolchildren. The most curious and most solemn was the disputation "about anything" (disputatio de quodlibet) that took place at the preparatory faculty. The topics were varied, for example:
The debate held by Matteo Acquasparta in the 13th century on the topic "is the necessary existence made through the knowledge of this thing, or can something that is not an object of the intellect?" reflected the struggle between two philosophical directions - nominalism and realism.
It was necessary to prove or disprove the Aristotelian syllogism "All people are animals. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is an animal."
The whole day there could be a dispute about whether the preaching of the word of God could be abandoned due to the prohibition of secular power. Is it possible to bind demons and the forces of darkness with a spell? Is a duel and tournament allowed according to canonical laws? Joking questions were also allowed, but not of a reprehensible nature, although from the point of view of our morality they may seem as follows: About the loyalty of concubines to priests. The attitude to such a plot was discussed quite seriously: the priest visited the daughter of a baker, but was forced to flee from a competitor, he ran into a pig shed. The baker came in and asked, "Who's there?" Pop replied: "No one but us." Can there be more than one angel in the same place?
The university authorities strove for academicism in disputes. Harsh language, shouting and insults were forbidden. But, nevertheless, disputes really often turned into battles between masters and scholars. The oak barrier did not save either. At the end of the course, the student passed the exam. It was hosted by a group of masters from each nation headed by a dean. The student must prove that he has read the recommended books and participated in the required number of disputes (6 from his master's and 3 university-wide). They were also interested in the behavior of the student. Then he was allowed to a public debate, which was supposed to answer all the questions. The award was a first bachelor's degree. For two years the bachelor assisted the master and received the "right to teach" (licentio docendi), becoming a "licentiate". Six months later, he became a master and had to give a solemn lecture to bachelors and masters, take an oath, arrange a feast.
It makes sense to recall a little about the higher sciences. There were three of them Theology, Jurisprudence and Medicine. Theology (Theology). The main teaching was conducted on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, which included the opinions of the most authoritative theologians on various controversial points in the Bible.
Jurisprudence. Undoubtedly, the largest number of students who moved to higher courses specialized in this discipline. It should be noted that there were several sources of laws. This is:
- - Canon law, based on the decisions of church councils, popes and other hierarchs of the church.
- - Roman law. The main one here was the code of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. In this code, great attention was paid to various types of property. But in practice, lawyers also needed to know local laws.
Various feudal rulers, such as the king of France, issued their own laws. In general, each more or less independent sovereign, whether a feudal lord or a city, could establish his own rules and laws. Relations between them were also regulated by laws, whether it was the norms of service, the number and size of various requisitions, the division of various powers, etc.
As a result, each province had its own local laws that could copy or conflict with common law.
The era of the Middle Ages cannot be considered as a period of failure in the development of Western European culture. It was in the Middle Ages that the most important features of the Western European Christian type of culture were formed on the basis of the widespread spread of Christianity. The institution of the church, the Christian doctrine occupied dominant positions in almost all areas during the period under review. cultural life medieval society. At the same time, already in the XIV century, new trends appeared in the cultural life of European countries, manifested in increased interest in human personality, a realistic depiction of reality. Especially these trends became noticeable in the culture of medieval Italy. A new period is approaching cultural development Western Europe - Renaissance6. Medieval traditional society, where rumors were the form of transmission of information, gradually begins to use the written word. The number of written laws is increasing, feudal law, like Roman law, is formalized in contracts. There is a process of desacralization of the book, accompanied by a rationalization of the methods of intellectual work. Mental mechanisms are rationalized, the scholastic method is being formed. Its formation is a long historical process. It all started with universities, then with lectures, with the transition from lectures to questions, and from questions to debates. These procedures themselves were not entirely new: the practice of question and answer had previously been used to interpret the Bible. The scholastics expanded the boundaries of this practice. At first, the problematic was developed, it assumed a dispute, and the novelty consisted in the fact that, in contrast to arguing with references to authority, the practice of logical substantiation of the argument became increasingly important. Such disputes were the practice training sessions at universities. The discussion was followed by the conclusion of the teacher. This conclusion depended on who spoke it.
Despite all its shortcomings, the medieval university still provided an opportunity to get a good education. Such well-known cultural figures as Pierre Abelard, Peter of Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scott, William of Ockham and others studied at universities. Medieval universities were a complex organism that stood at the center of the scientific and cultural life of Europe. They concentrated the development of science of that time. The role of medieval universities in the development of culture is great. They contributed to international cultural communication. The university environment, built on freethinking and elective power, contributed to the formation of a new mentality based on respect for the individual and the ability to put forward and defend new ideas in disputes.
