How Speransky's reforms could affect the estates. Speransky Mikhail Mikhailovich - a short biography. The purpose of the control work is to review the main reform projects developed by M.M. Speransky

§ 2. Liberalism in Russia. Projects of State Reforms by MM Speransky Alexander I, who ascended the throne as a result of the assassination of Paul I, at the beginning of his reign promised to govern the people "according to the laws and heart of his wise grandmother." Main concern

Speransky is best known for his extensive reforms. He was a supporter of the constitutional order, however, he believed that Russia was not yet ready to say goodbye to the monarchy, so it was necessary to gradually transform the political system, change the management system and introduce new norms and legislative acts. By order of Alexander 1, Speransky developed an extensive program of reforms that were supposed to bring the country out of the crisis and transform the state.

The program included:

Equalization of all estates before the law;

Reducing the costs of all government departments;

Establishing strict control over the spending of public funds;

The division of power into legislative, executive and judicial, the change in the functions of ministries;

Creation of new, more advanced judicial bodies, as well as the creation of new legislation;

Introduction of a new tax system and transformations in the domestic economy and trade.

In general, Speransky wanted to create a more democratic system with a monarch at the head, where every person, regardless of his origin, had equal rights and could count on the protection of his rights in court. Speransky wanted to create a full-fledged legal state in Russia.

Unfortunately, not all the reforms proposed by Speransky were implemented. In many ways, the failure of his program was influenced by the fear of Alexander 1 before such major transformations and the dissatisfaction of the nobility, which had influence on the king.

The results of Speransky's activities

Despite the fact that not all of the plans were implemented, some of the projects drawn up by Speransky were nevertheless brought to life.

Thanks to Speransky, we managed to achieve:

The growth of the country's economy, as well as the growth of the economic attractiveness of the Russian Empire in the eyes of foreign investors, which made it possible to create a more powerful foreign trade;

Modernization of the public administration system. The army of officials began to function more efficiently for less public funds;

Create a powerful infrastructure in the domestic economy, which allowed it to develop faster and self-regulate more effectively

Create a stronger legal system. Under the leadership of Speransky, the Complete Collection of the Laws of the Russian Empire was published in 45 volumes - a document containing all the laws and acts issued since the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.

In addition, Speransky was a brilliant lawyer and lawmaker, and the theoretical principles of management that he described over the period of his activity formed the basis of modern law.

Arakcheev Alexey Andreevich (1769-1834), Russian military leader and statesman.

Born on October 4, 1769 in the village of Garusovo, Novgorod province, in the family of a retired lieutenant of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment.

In 1783-1787. studied at the Artillery and Engineering gentry cadet corps. In 1787, with the rank of lieutenant from the army, Arakcheev was left at the corps to teach mathematics and artillery. Here he compiled a textbook "Short Artillery Notes in Questions and Answers."

In 1792, Arakcheev was transferred to serve in the "Gatchina troops" of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich. During this period, he became the favorite of the heir to the throne: After the accession of Paul I, Arakcheev was appointed commandant of St. Petersburg, promoted to major general (1796) and received the title of baron. In 1797 he became commander of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and quartermaster general of the entire army. In 1798, the emperor granted him the title of count with the motto: "Without flattery betrayed."

In the same year, a theft was committed in the artillery arsenal. Arakcheev tried to hide from the emperor that on the day of the crime his brother commanded the guard. As a punishment, Paul fired him from the service. Only in 1803, Emperor Alexander I accepted the general back, appointing him inspector of all artillery and commander of the Life Guards Artillery Battalion.

In 1803-1812. As an inspector of artillery, and later as Minister of War, Arakcheev carried out a number of fundamental changes in this type of troops. Arakcheev's system was to provide Russian artillery with a high technical level and independence on the battlefield.

In January 1808 Arakcheev was appointed minister of war. From that moment on, his influence at court steadily increased until the death of Alexander (1825). In less than two years, the new minister increased the army by 30 thousand people, organized reserve recruiting depots, which made it possible in 1812 to quickly replenish existing military units, put things in order in finances and office work.

On the eve of the Patriotic War of 1812, as part of the Imperial Headquarters, he was in Vilna (now Vilnius). After the outbreak of hostilities, Arakcheev, together with Secretary of State Admiral A.S. Shishkov and Adjutant General A.D. Balashov, convinced Alexander I to leave the army and return to St. Petersburg.

From August 1814, Arakcheev led the creation of military settlements, and in 1819 he became the chief commander of them (in 1821-1826, the chief commander of the Separate Corps of military settlements). In February 1818, Arakcheev, on behalf of the emperor, drew up a project for the gradual abolition of serfdom. According to the suggestion of the count, the state was to buy out the landowners' estates at prices agreed with the owners. Alexander I approved the project, but it was not implemented.

In the reign of Nicholas I, Arakcheev retained only the command of the Separate Corps of Military Settlements. In April 1826 he was released on leave to the waters. While abroad, he published letters to him from Alexander I, causing the wrath of Nicholas. The emperor finally dismissed Arakcheev from service and forbade him to appear in the capital.

Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov(Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov-Smolensky) (1745 - 1813) - greatest commander, Field Marshal.

Mikhail was born in the family of Senator Illarion Golenishchev-Kutuzov. The first training in the biography of Mikhail Kutuzov took place at home. Then, in 1759, he entered the Artillery and Engineering gentry school. After graduating from school, he remained to teach mathematics, soon became an adjutant wing, and later - a captain, company commander.

Having briefly commanded detachments, an extremely important period began in Kutuzov's biography - he was transferred to the Rumyantsev army, which was at war with Turkey. Under the leadership of Field Marshal General, as well as Alexandra Suvorova, Kutuzov gained incomparable military experience. Starting the war as an officer, he soon received the rank of lieutenant colonel.

In 1772 he was transferred to the 2nd army of Prince Dolgoruky. If we consider a further brief biography of Kutuzov, then we should note his return to Russia in 1776, receiving the rank of colonel. In 1784, Kutuzov received the rank of major general for his successful activities in the Crimea. The years 1788-1790 in Kutuzov's biography were distinguished by military saturation: he took part in the siege of Ochakov, the battles near Kaushany, the assault on Bender, Ishmael, for which he received the rank of lieutenant general. Kutuzov also took part in the Russian-Polish war, taught military disciplines a lot, served as a military governor.

For Kutuzov Mikhail Illarionovich, the biography in 1805 marked the beginning of the war with Napoleon. Being the commander-in-chief of the army, he made a march-maneuver to Olmutz. Then he was defeated in the battle of Austerlitz. In 1806 he became the military governor of Kyiv, in 1809 - the Lithuanian governor.

In 1811, in the biography of M. Kutuzov, hostilities were again launched with Turkey. The Turkish troops were defeated, and Kutuzov received the dignity of a count. During the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief of all Russian armies, and also received the title of His Serene Highness. Initially retreating, Kutuzov showed an excellent strategy during the Battle of Borodino, as well as the Battle of Tarutino. Napoleon's army was destroyed.

Pestel Pavel Ivanovich (1793-1826), Decembrist.

Born on July 5, 1793, a descendant of several generations of Moscow postal directors, the son of the Siberian Governor-General I. B. Pestel.

He studied in Dresden and in the St. Petersburg Corps of Pages. Serving in the guard, passed Patriotic war 1812 and Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. He became a colonel of the Vyatka regiment (1821).

From the very beginning, Pestel's deep knowledge and oratory made him one of the leaders of the noble revolutionaries. He wrote the statutes of the secret organization the Union of Salvation (1816). He created the Council of the Welfare Union in the city of Tulchin (1818), ensured that its members adopted the republican program and agreed on the need to kill the tsar, and then on the demand to destroy the entire imperial family.

Pestel created and headed the Southern Society of the Decembrists (1821) and tried to merge it with the Northern Society based on his Russkaya Pravda program. In this document, he insisted on the release of peasants with land, the restriction of landownership and the formation of two funds from confiscated land: for distribution to peasant communities and for sale or lease by the state.

Pestel dreamed of destroying the estates in Russia and giving the right to vote to all men from the age of 20 to elect the supreme legislative, executive and control bodies. He believed that elections should take place when the Provisional Government, which had dictatorial rights, had completed its revolutionary work.

On December 13, 1825, Pestel was arrested on a denunciation and was unable to take part in the uprising on Senate Square.

Together with other Decembrists sentenced to death, he was executed on July 25, 1826 in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Nikita Mikhailovich Muravyov(1795 - 1843) - Decembrist, one of the most important ideologists of the movement.

Nikita was born into a noble family in St. Petersburg. The first education in the biography of N. Muravyov was received at home. Then he entered University of Moscow, after which he began working as a registrar in the Department of the Ministry of Justice.

1812 in the biography of N.M. Muravyov is marked by joining the army. Already in 1813 he became an ensign. Nikita Muraviev took part in the battles near Dresden, Hamburg, fought against Napoleon. Since 1817 he was a Freemason, was a member of the Lodge of the Three Virtues. In 1820, he retired at the request, then began to serve in the Guards General Staff.

Muraviev contributed to the formation of the Union of Salvation, the Union of Prosperity. Being a zealous activist, at one of the meetings in 1820 he expressed the idea of ​​establishing a republican form of government through an armed uprising.

In 1821 for N.M. Muravyov in his biography, another important event took place - he organized the Northern Society. In the same year, the activist developed his own version of the Constitution, but after criticism from fellow thinkers, he corrected some points.

Despite the fact that Muravyov left Petersburg in December 1825, he was arrested on December 20 because he was considered involved in the work of a secret society. December 26 placed in the Peter and Paul Fortress, sentenced to 20 years hard labor. However, later the term was changed, shortened to 15 years. In December 1826, Muravyov arrived in Siberia. Nikita's wife, Alexandra Chernysheva, went with her husband. In 1836 he arrived in Irkutsk, died there, in the Irkutsk province in 1843.

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. He received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was versed in the art of war and fortification. He was good at engineering. However, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1 "Nikolai Palkin" was fixed among the soldiers.

In 1817 Nicholas married the Prussian princess Frederica Louise Charlotte Wilhelmina.

Alexandra Feodorovna, wife of Nicholas 1, with amazing beauty, became the mother of the future emperor Alexandra 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second pretender to the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and at first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the first day was clouded Decembrist uprising on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the need to reform the social system. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on bureaucracy, since trust in the nobility was undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was characterized by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended autocracy with all his might. The secret office under the leadership of Benckendorff was engaged in political investigation. After the release of the censorship charter in 1826, all printed publications with the slightest political overtones were banned. Russia under Nicholas 1 quite strongly resembled the country of the era Arakcheeva.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. Legislation has been streamlined. Under the direction of Speransky The publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allotted land when they moved to uninhabited areas, first-aid posts were built in the villages, and innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. But the introduction of innovations took place by force and caused sharp discontent. In 1839 - 1843. a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and banknotes. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside it. In 1826 - 1828. As a result of the Russian-Iranian war, Armenia was annexed to the territory of the country. Nicholas 1 condemned the revolutionary processes in Europe. In 1849 he sent Paskevich's army to crush the Hungarian revolution. In 1853 Russia entered into Crimean War. But, following the results of the Peace of Paris, concluded in 1856, the country lost the right to have a fleet and fortresses on the Black Sea, lost South Moldavia. The failure undermined the king's health. Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky is an outstanding personality in Russian history. Speransky was the initiator of many reforms that were of great importance for historical development Russia.

Mikhail was born on January 1, 1772. His family was the most ordinary, his father is a priest. The boy grew up in an atmosphere of religiosity. Its origin, it seems, prophesied the most ordinary fate for Speransky, but ...

He was a talented man, generously gifted by nature. At the age of seven, he begins his studies at the theological seminary in Vladimir.

During his studies, he showed a great craving for books, he liked to think and reflect. It was during these years that his character was formed.

Mikhail was firm and stubborn, while he was characterized by good nature and modesty, but his main distinguishing feature was the ability to get along well with others.

For excellent studies, he was transferred to the Alexander Nevsky Seminary in St. Petersburg. Here he gets acquainted with the philosophical works of various European thinkers.

In 1792 he completed his studies, but remained to teach at his own seminary. First, he was entrusted with teaching a course in mathematics, and then in physics, eloquence, and even philosophy.

Even the most talented people do not immediately reach the top. It also happened with Speransky. He went a long way from a promising student to one of the smartest and most influential people in the Russian Empire.

Alexei Borisovich Kurakin, a former rich and influential man, needed a house secretary. Speransky was recommended to Kurakin and, after a small trial assignment, Mikhail Mikhailovich was hired.

When Paul I became emperor of Russia, Kurakin managed to become a senator. Kurakin rapidly advanced in the service, and soon rose to the post of Prosecutor General. Speransky, on the other hand, always helped Kurakin. When Alexei Borisovich became the Prosecutor General, Mikhail Mikhailovich began working in his office.

In 1802, Speransky became secretary of state of Kochubey (who was in great confidence with Alexander I) and moved to the Ministry of the Interior. Speransky's activities in his positions were very constructive, he was appreciated by his colleagues. Having begun his public service during the reign of Paul I, when officials did not have time to sign various decrees that came out one after another, Speransky clearly, concisely and concisely set out his thoughts on paper. Many historians call him the founder of the business language in Russia.

In 1806, Kochubey began to send his secretary of state instead of himself to report to Alexander I. This is how the emperor and the future great reformer met. On Alexander Pavlovich, Speransky made the most favorable impression. Alexander I became very close to Mikhail Mikhailovich.

After the failure in the European wars with Napoleon, Russian society criticized the emperor, and he was forced to seek support. It was she who he found in the person of Speransky, who accompanied Alexander I on European trips. In 1808, Alexander I asked him to prepare a document in which he would outline his vision of transformations in Russia. He proposed a number of different reforms, some of which formed the basis domestic policy Alexandra I.

At the beginning of 1810, the Council of State was established. Mikhail Speransky became secretary of state, de facto, he became the second state official, after the emperor. A lot of people didn't like it, of course. The transformations carried out by him affected all strata of society. A lot of work has been done with financial reporting. The state stopped issuing banknotes, tightened control over the financial resources allocated for the needs of the ministries.

Dissatisfaction with liberal reforms, the expansion of the rights of the lower classes and the restriction of the rights of the nobility, led to great discontent among the nobles. During the intrigue of interested parties, Speransky was accused of usurping power, conspiring with France and spying for her. Mikhail Mikhailovich was sent into exile, he did not admit his guilt, and more than once wrote letters to the emperor, in which he easily deflected all accusations from himself.

The time spent in exile, Speransky did not waste. He was engaged in creativity, wrote articles and books, mostly religious. Over the years, he became more and more religious. In 1816 he asked to be returned to the civil service. This was not Speransky's first attempt to return to public activity. This time the emperor satisfied her, and appointed the disgraced reformer as the head (governor) of the Penza province.

In 1819, Mikhail Speransky became Governor-General of Siberia. In two years he will be in St. Petersburg. Already in the capital of the empire, Mikhail will complete his project to reorganize the administration of Siberia, which will be approved by Alexander I. Returning to St. Petersburg, Mikhail Mikhailovich works as a Member of the State Council, the Siberian Committee and the rank of manager of the Law Drafting Commission. Soon a new emperor, Nicholas I, ascended the Russian throne.

Nicholas I asked Mikhail Speransky to prepare a speech for the coronation day. He coped with this task with brilliance. Under Nicholas I, Speransky did, perhaps, the most significant work of his life - he streamlined the legislation of the Russian Empire. 45 volumes of legislative and regulatory legal acts that existed in the Russian Empire were published. At the same time, Speransky was compiling the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. For his productive work in important administrative positions, Speransky would be awarded the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. In January 1839 he was granted the title of count. A month later, Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky died.

In the biography of Speransky there were ups and downs. A brilliant reformer of his time, distinguished by liberal views, who at the end of his life nevertheless became a supporter of autocratic power. This is a colorful and interesting personality, Speransky's activities can be assessed in different ways, but he is of great interest, even today.

The process of carrying out state reforms in Russia, which began at the beginning of the 18th century, was interrupted after the country's entry into the war with France in 1805-1807. This war ended with the Peace of Tilsit, unfavorable for Russia, because of which the prestige of the emperor was undermined. Therefore, in order to restore his authority, Emperor Alexander I decided to continue the initiated reforms to improve the state system.

The development of reforms was proposed to Deputy Minister of Justice M. M. Speransky.

The essence of M.M. Speransky

Speransky was a good and diligent civil servant, distinguished by outstanding abilities and diligence, he himself made his way to the highest strata of the Russian bureaucracy.

In 1809, Speransky presented a draft of fundamental state changes - "Introduction to the Code of State Laws."

The goal of the reform was two main provisions:

• replacing autocratic rule with constitutional;
• abolition of serfdom.

The reform project proposed by Speransky reflected the bourgeois-liberal principles:

• separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial;
• popular representation;
• elective start.

According to the draft, the State Duma should be the supreme legislative body, the Senate - the judicial body, and the Committee of Ministers - the executive body.

From the Speransky reform project, the following followed:

1. The State Duma was supposed to express the "opinion of the people", but the initiative to adopt new laws remained in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucracy.
2. The emperor retained political and administrative powers.
3. Nobles and the middle class (merchants, burghers, state peasants who had real estate) should be granted voting rights.
4. Civil rights were established. For example, no one could be punished without a court verdict.
5. It was proposed to create a State Council to review laws and coordinate the activities of higher state institutions.

The emperor approved the submitted reform project, calling it "satisfactory and useful." But those close to the emperor opposed the project, seeing in it "an encroachment on the sacred foundations of Russian statehood".

Of the reforms proposed by Speransky, only those relating to the creation of the State Council and the completion of the ministerial reform were approved and implemented.

In 1810, the highest legislative body was created - the State Council. The main task of the new body was to bring the legal system to a general uniformity. The Secretary of State was in charge of the office of the State Council and was in charge of all current office work.
M. M. Speransky was appointed the first Secretary of State.

In 1811, Speransky introduced a new bill - "The General Establishment of Ministries", which completed the ministerial reform. According to the bill, the number of ministers increased to 12 people, their limits of responsibility were divided, the structure was determined, etc.

In 1809, the publishing house of the Decree on Court Ranks took place. This decree specified the following:

1. Service at court has no privileges.
2. Those who have court ranks must enter the military or civil service.
3. Officials are required to have the appropriate education, be sure to know the basic disciplines: law, history, foreign language, statistics, mathematics.

So, M. M. Speransky had many enemies who called his transformations criminal. Therefore, M. M. Speransky was forced to resign in March 1812. He was removed from government until 1816 and exiled to Perm.

In 1816 he was returned to the civil service and given the title of governor of Penza; in 1819 he became governor general of Siberia.

In 1821, the emperor invited M. M. Speransky to Petersburg, indicating that his resignation was "forced victim" which he had to go to in order to reduce the growth of discontent among the majority of the nobles who opposed any change.

It is important to note that under Alexander I the following reforms were attempted:

1. 1815 - the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland.
2. 1809 - as a result of the accession of Finland to Russia, the emperor retained the Sejm and the constitutional structure of Finland.
3. 1819 - 1820 - creation by N.N. Novosiltsev of the "Charter of the Russian Empire". According to the charter, power was divided into legislative, executive and judicial, the principle of equality of citizens before the law and the federal principle of public administration were introduced. It is important to note that this project was not adopted and remained only on paper.
4. 1808-1810 - reforms by A.A. Arakcheev.

The main provisions of the reforms of A.A. Arakcheeva

A.A. Arakcheev was the Minister of War, who enjoyed the confidence of Alexander I. In 1808, he began to reform the army. A.A. Arakcheev was characterized as an honest and devoted military man, who was distinguished by ruthlessness in his performing activities (his motto was the following: "Without flattery betrayed").

Arakcheev carried out the following reforms:

• artillery reform;
• order in the army economy;
• made the armed forces mobile.

After the war with Napoleon in 1812, Arakcheev's influence on the emperor increased significantly. He subjugated the State Council, the Committee of Ministers, His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery.

A number of serious transformations are associated with the activities of Arakcheev, including the peasant reform (1816-1819). The reform was carried out in the Baltic states and was reflected in two bills - the “Regulations on the Estonian peasants” and the “Regulations on the Livonian peasants”.

According to the reform, the peasants received personal freedom, but without land, because. the land was recognized as the property of the landowners. The peasants were also given the right to own land on a lease basis with the subsequent possibility of redemption. When Arakcheev drafted this reform, he was guided by the decree of the emperor
"Do not hamper the landlords, do not use violent measures against them."

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