Various real fundamental particles can arise from. Particles are elementary. An excerpt characterizing the Fundamental particle

Presented in Fig.1 fundamental fermions, with spin ½, are the "first bricks" of matter. They are represented leptons(electrons e, neutrino, etc.) - particles not participating in strong nuclear interactions, and quarks, which are involved in strong interactions. Nuclear particles are made up of quarks hadrons(protons, neutrons and mesons). Each of these particles has its own antiparticle, which must be placed in the same cell. The designation of an antiparticle is distinguished by the tilde sign (~).

Of the six varieties of quarks, or six fragrances electric charge 2/3 (in units of elementary charge e) possess upper ( u), charmed ( c) and true ( t) quarks, and with charge –1/3 – lower ( d), strange ( s) and beautiful ( b) quarks. Antiquarks with the same flavors will have electric charges of -2/3 and 1/3, respectively.

fundamental particles

Fundamental fermions (half-integer spin)

Fundamental bosons (integer spin)

Leptons

Quarks

n e

nm

n t

u

c

t

2/3

Strong

El.-magnetic

Weak

gravitational

e

m

t

–1

d

s

b

–1/3

8 g J = 1 m = 0

g J = 1 m = 0

W ± ,Z 0 J = 1 m@100

G J = 2 m = 0

I

II

III

I

II

III

Electroweak interaction

grand unification

superunification

In quantum chromodynamics (the theory of the strong interaction), three types of strong interaction charges are attributed to quarks and antiquarks: red R(anti-red); green G(anti-green); blue B(anti blue). Color (strong) interaction binds quarks in hadrons. The latter are divided into baryons, consisting of three quarks, and mesons consisting of two quarks. For example, protons and neutrons related to baryons have the following quark composition:

p = (uud) and , n = (ddu) and .

As an example, we present the composition of the pi-meson triplet:

, ,

It is easy to see from these formulas that the charge of the proton is +1, while that of the antiproton is -1. Neutron and antineutron have zero charge. The spins of the quarks in these particles are added so that their total spins are equal to ½. Such combinations of the same quarks are also possible, in which the total spins are equal to 3/2. Such elementary particles (D ++ , D + , D 0 , D –) have been discovered and belong to resonances, i.e. short lived hadrons.

The known process of radioactive b-decay, which is represented by the scheme

n ® p + e + ,

from the point of view of quark theory looks like

(udd) ® ( uud) + e+ or d ® u + e + .

Despite repeated attempts to detect free quarks in experiments, it was not possible. This suggests that quarks, apparently, appear only in the composition of more complex particles ( trapping quarks). A complete explanation of this phenomenon has not yet been given.

Figure 1 shows that there is a symmetry between leptons and quarks, called quark-lepton symmetry. Particles in the top row have one more charge than particles in the bottom row. The particles of the first column belong to the first generation, the second - to the second generation, and the third column - to the third generation. Proper quarks c, b and t were predicted based on this symmetry. The matter surrounding us consists of particles of the first generation. What is the role of particles of the second and third generations? There is no definitive answer to this question yet.

The units of measurement of physical quantities in the description of phenomena occurring in the microworld are divided into basic and derivatives, which are determined through the mathematical notation of the laws of physics.
Due to the fact that all physical phenomena occur in space and time, the units of length and time are primarily taken as the basic units, and the unit of mass is added to them. Basic units: lengths l, time t, mass m − get a certain dimension. The dimensions of derived units are determined by formulas expressing certain physical laws.
The dimensions of the basic physical units are selected so that in practice it is convenient to use them.
In the SI system, the following dimensions are accepted: lengths [ l] = m (meter), time [t] = s (second), mass [t] = kg (kilogram).
In the CGS system, the following dimensions are accepted for basic units: length [/] \u003d cm (centimeter), time [t] \u003d s (second) and mass [t] \u003d g (gram). To describe the phenomena occurring in the microcosm, both systems of units SI and CGS can be used.
Let us estimate the orders of magnitude of length, time and mass in the phenomena of the microworld.
In addition to the generally accepted international systems SI and CGS units are also used "natural systems of units" based on universal physical constants. These systems of units are particularly relevant and used in various physical theories. In the natural system of units, fundamental constants are taken as the basic units: the speed of light in vacuum - c, Planck's constant - ћ, gravitational constant G N , Boltzmann's constant - k: Avogadro's number - N A , etc. In the natural system of Planck units, c = ћ = G N = k = 1. This system of units is used in cosmology to describe processes in which both quantum and gravitational effects are significant (theories of black holes, theories of the early universe).
In the natural system of units, the problem of the natural unit of length is solved. This can be considered the Compton wavelength λ 0 , which is determined by the particle mass M: λ 0 = ћ/Ms.
Length characterizes the size of the object. So, for an electron, the classical radius r 0 \u003d e 2 /m e c 2 \u003d 2.81794 10 -13 cm (e, m e are the charge and mass of the electron). The classical radius of an electron has the meaning of the radius of a charged ball with a charge e (the distribution is spherically symmetric), at which the energy electrostatic field ball ε = γe 2 /r 0 is equal to the rest energy of the electron m e c 2 (used when considering Thompson light scattering).
The radius of the Bohr orbit is also used. It is defined as the distance from the nucleus at which an electron is most likely to be found in an unexcited hydrogen atom.
a 0 = ћ 2 /m e e 2 (in the CGS system) and a 0 = (α/4π)R = 0.529 10 -10 m (in the SI system), α = 1/137.
Nucleon size r ≈ 10 -13 cm (1 femtometer). The characteristic dimensions of atomic systems are 10 -8 , nuclear systems - 10 -12 ÷ 10 -13 cm.
Time varies over a wide range and is defined as the ratio of the distance R to the speed of the object v. For micro-objects τ poison = R/v = 5·10 -12 cm/10 9 cm/s ~ 5·10 -22 s;
τ element h \u003d 10 -13 cm / 3 10 10 cm / s \u003d 3 10 -24 s.
Masses objects vary from 0 to M. Thus, the mass of an electron m e ≈ 10 -27 g, the mass of a proton
m p ≈ 10 -24 g (CGS system). One atomic mass unit used in atomic and nuclear physics, 1 a.m.u. = M(C)/12 in units of the mass of the carbon atom.
The fundamental characteristics of micro-objects include an electric charge, as well as the characteristics necessary for the identification of an elementary particle.
Electric charge particles Q is usually measured in units of electron charge. Electron charge e = 1.6 10 -19 pendant. For particles in the free state, Q/e = ±1, 0, and for quarks that make up hadrons, Q/e = ±2/3 and ±1/3.
In nuclei, the charge is determined by the number of protons Z contained in the nucleus. The charge of a proton is equal in absolute value to the charge of an electron.
To identify an elementary particle, you need to know:
I is the isotopic spin;
J - intrinsic moment of momentum - spin;
R - spatial parity;
C is the charge parity;
G − G-parity.
This information is written as a formula I G (J PC).
Spin is one of the most important characteristics of a particle, which is measured using Planck's fundamental constant h or ћ = h/2π = 1.0544·10 -27 [erg-s]. Bosons have an integer spin in units of ћ: (0,1, 2,...)ћ, fermions have a half-integer (1/2, 3/2,... .)ћ. In the class of supersymmetric particles, the values ​​of the spins of fermions and bosons are interchanged.

Rice. 4 illustrates the physical meaning of the spin J by analogy with the classical idea of ​​the angular momentum of a particle with a mass m = 1 g moving at a speed v = 1 cm/s along a circle with a radius r = 1 cm. In classical physics, the angular momentum J = mvr = L (L is the orbital momentum). In quantum mechanics, J = 10 27 ћ = 1 erg·s for the same parameters of an object moving in a circle, where ћ = 1.05·10 -27 erg·s.
The projection of the spin of an elementary particle on the direction of its momentum is called helicity. The helicity of a massless particle with an arbitrary spin takes only two values: along or against the direction of the particle's momentum. For a photon, the possible values ​​of helicity are equal to ±1, for a massless neutrino, the helicity is equal to ±1/2.
The spin moment of momentum of an atomic nucleus is defined as the vector sum of the spins of elementary particles that form a quantum system, and the orbital moments of these particles, due to their motion within the system. Orbital moment ||, and spin moment || acquire a discrete value. Orbital moment || = ћ[ l(l+1)] 1/2 , where l− orbital quantum number (can take values ​​0, 1,2,...), intrinsic moment of momentum || = ћ 1/2 where s is the spin quantum number (it can take zero, integer or half-integer values ​​J, the total angular momentum is equal to the sum + = .
The derived units should include: the energy of the particle, the speed that replaces the speed for relativistic particles, magnetic moment and etc.
Energy resting particle: E = mc 2 ; moving particle: E \u003d m 2 c 4 + p 2 c 2.
For non-relativistic particles: E = mc 2 + p 2 /2m; for relativistic particles, with mass m = 0: E = cf.
Energy units - eV, keV, MeV, GeV, TeV, ... 1 GeV = 10 9 eV, 1 TeV = 10 12 eV,
1 eV = 1.6 10 -12 erg.
Particle speed β = v/c, where c = 3 10 10 cm/s is the speed of light. The speed of the particle determines such an important characteristic as the Lorentz factor of the particle γ = 1/(1-β 2) 1/2 = E/mc 2 . Always γ > 1- For non-relativistic particles 1< γ < 2, а для релятивистских частиц γ > 2.
In high energy physics, the particle velocity β is close to 1 and is difficult to determine for relativistic particles. Therefore, instead of speed, speed y is used, which is related to speed by the relation y = (1/2)ln[(1+β)/(1-β)] = (1/2)ln[(E+p)/(E-p) ]. Speed ​​changes from 0 to ∞.

The functional relationship between particle velocity and speed is shown in fig. 5. For relativistic particles at β → 1, E → p, then instead of speed one can use pseudo-rapidity η, which is determined by the particle departure angle θ, η = (1/2)ln tan(θ/2). Unlike speed, speed is an additive quantity, i.e. y 2 = y 0 + y 1 for any frame of reference and for any relativistic and non-relativistic particles.
Magnetic moment μ = Iπr 2 /c, where the current I = ev/2πr, arises due to the rotation of the electric charge. Thus, any charged particle has a magnetic moment. When considering the magnetic moment of an electron, the Bohr magneton is used
μ B = eћ/2m e c = 0.5788·10 -14 MeV/Gs, electron magnetic moment = g·μ B ·. The coefficient g is called the gyromagnetic ratio. For an electron g = /μ B · = 2, because J = ћ/2, = μ B provided that the electron is a point structureless particle. The gyromagnetic ratio g contains information about the structure of the particle. The quantity (g − 2) is measured in experiments aimed at studying the structure of particles other than leptons. For leptons, this quantity indicates the role of higher electromagnetic corrections (see Section 7.1 below).
In nuclear physics, the nuclear magneton μ i = eћ/2m p c is used, where m p is the proton mass.

2.1.1. The Heaviside system and its relationship to the CGS system

In the Heaviside system, the speed of light c and Planck's constant ћ are assumed to be equal to unity, i.e. c = ћ = 1. The main units of measurement are energy units - MeV or MeV -1, while in the CGS system the main units of measurement are [g, cm, s]. Then, using the relations: E \u003d mc 2 \u003d m \u003d MeV, l= ћ/mc = MeV -1 , t = ћ/mc 2 = MeV -1 , we get the relationship between the Heaviside system and the CGS system in the form:

• m(g) = m(MeV) 2 10 -27 ,
• l(cm) = l(MeV -1) 2 10 -11 ,
• t (c) \u003d t (MeV -1) b.b 10 -22.

The Heaviside system is used in high-energy physics to describe phenomena occurring in the microcosm, and is based on the use of natural constants с and ћ, which are decisive in relativistic and quantum mechanics.
The numerical values ​​of the corresponding quantities in the CGS system for the electron and proton are given in Table. 3 and can be used to move from one system to another.

Table 3. Numerical values ​​of quantities in the CGS system for electron and proton

2.1.2. Planck (natural) units

When considering gravitational effects, the Planck scale is introduced to measure energy, mass, length, and time. If the gravitational energy of an object is equal to its total energy, i.e.

then
length = 1.6 10 -33 cm,
mass = 2.2 10 -5 g = 1.2 10 19 GeV,
time = 5.4 10 -44 s,
where \u003d 6.67 10 -8 cm 2 g -1 s -2.

Gravitational effects are significant when the gravitational energy of an object is comparable to its total energy.

2.2. Classification of elementary particles

The concept of "elementary particle" was formed with the establishment of the discrete nature of the structure of matter at the microscopic level.

Atoms → nuclei → nucleons → partons (quarks and gluons)

In modern physics, the term "elementary particles" is used to name a large group of tiny observed particles of matter. This group of particles is very extensive: p protons, n neutrons, π- and K-mesons, hyperons, charmed particles (J/ψ...) and many resonances (total
~ 350 particles). These particles are called "hadrons".
It turned out that these particles are not elementary, but are composite systems, the constituents of which are truly elementary or, as they began to be called, " fundamental "particles − partons, discovered in the study of the structure of the proton. The study of the properties of partons made it possible to identify them with quarks and gluons introduced into consideration by Gell-Mann and Zweig in the classification of observed elementary particles. The quarks turned out to be fermions with spin J = 1/2. They were assigned fractional electric charges and a baryon number B = 1/3, since a baryon with B = 1 consists of three quarks. In addition, to explain the properties of some baryons, it became necessary to introduce a new quantum number - color. Each quark has three color states, denoted by the indices 1, 2, 3, or the words red (R), green (G), and blue (B). Color does not manifest itself in any way in the observed hadrons and works only inside them.
To date, 6 flavors (types) of quarks have been discovered.
In table. 4 shows the properties of quarks for one color state.

Table 4. Properties of quarks

Aroma	Mass, MeV/s 2	I	I 3	Q q /e	s	with	b	t
u up	330; (5)	1/2	1/2	2/3	0	0	0	0
d down	340; (7)	1/2	-1/2	-1/3	0	0	0	0
s strange	450; (150)	0	0	-1/3	-1	0	0	0
with charm	1500	0	0	2/3	0	1	0	0
b beauty	5000	0	0	-1/3	0	0	-1	0
t truth	174000	0	0	2/3	0	0	0	1

For each flavor of a quark, its mass is given (the masses of constituent quarks are given and the masses of current quarks are given in brackets), isotopic spin I and the 3rd projection of isotopic spin I 3 , quark charge Q q /e and quantum numbers s, c, b, t. Along with these quantum numbers, the hypercharge quantum number Y = B + s + c + b + t is often used. There is a connection between the projection of the isotopic spin I 3 , electric charge Q and hypercharge Y: Q = I 3 + (1/2)Y.
Since each quark has 3 colors, 18 quarks must be involved in the consideration. Quarks have no structure.
At the same time, among the elementary particles there was a whole class of particles called " leptons". They are also fundamental particles, that is, they have no structure. There are six of them: three charged e, μ, τ and three neutral ones ν e, ν μ, ν τ. Leptons participate only in electromagnetic and weak interactions. Leptons and quarks with half-integer spin J = (n+1/2)ћ, n = 0, 1,... . are fundamental fermions.There is an amazing symmetry between leptons and quarks: six leptons and six quarks.
In table. 5 shows the properties of fundamental fermions: the electric charge Q i in units of the electron charge and the particle mass m. Leptons and quarks come together in three generations (I, II and III). For each generation, the sum of electric charges ∑Q i = 0, taking into account 3 color charges for each quark. Each fermion has an antifermion.
In addition to the characteristics of the particles listed in the table, an important role for leptons is played by lepton numbers: electronic L e equal to +1 for e - and ν e , muon L μ equal to +1 for μ - and ν μ and taon L τ equal to + 1 for τ - and ν τ , which correspond to the flavors of leptons involved in specific reactions and are conserved quantities. For leptons, the baryon number B = 0.

Table 5. Properties of fundamental fermions

The matter surrounding us consists of fermions of the first generation of non-zero mass. The influence of particles of the second and third generations manifested itself in the early Universe. Among the fundamental particles special role play fundamental gauge bosons having an integer internal quantum number spin J = nћ, n = 0, 1, .... Gauge bosons are responsible for four types of fundamental interactions: strong (gluon g), electromagnetic (photon γ), weak (bosons W ± , Z 0), gravitational (graviton G). They are also structureless, fundamental particles.
In table. 6 shows the properties of fundamental bosons, which are field quanta in gauge theories.

Table 6. Properties of fundamental bosons

Name	Charge	Weight	Spin	Interactions
Graviton, G	0	0	2	gravitational
Photon, γ	0	< 3·10 -27 эВ	1	electromagnetic
Charged vector bosons, W ±	±1	80.419 GeV/s 2	1	Weak
Neutral vector boson, Z 0	0	91.188 GeV/s 2	1	Weak
Gluons, g 1 , ... , g 8	0	0	0	Strong
Higgs, H 0 , H ±	0	> 100 GeV/c 2	0

In addition to the properties of the discovered gauge bosons γ, W ± , Z 0 , g 1 ,... , g 8, the table shows the properties of bosons that have not yet been discovered: the G graviton and the Higgs bosons H 0 , H ± .
Let us now consider the most numerous group of elementary strongly interacting particles - hadrons, to explain the structure of which the concept of quarks was introduced.
Hadrons are subdivided into mesons and baryons. Mesons are built from a quark and an antiquark (q). Baryons consist of three quarks (q 1 q 2 q 3).
In table. 7 lists the properties of basic hadrons. (For detailed tables, see The European Physical Journal C, Rev. of Particle Phys., v.15, no. 1 - 4, 2000.)

Table 7. Properties of hadrons

	Name	Mass, MeV/s 2	Life time, s	Decay fashions	Quark composition
	Peony π ± 1 - (0 -+) π 0	139.567 134.965	2.6 10 -8 0.83 10 -16	π ± → μ ± + ν π 0 → γ + γ	(u), (d) (u − d)/√2
	η meson η 0 0 + (0 -+)	548.8	Г=1.18±0.11 keV	η 0 → γ + γ; 3π 0 →π + + π -0 + π --	c 1 (u + d) + c 2 (s)
				(u), (s) (d) (d)
	D ± D0	1869.3 1864.5	10.69 10 -13 4.28 10 -13	D ± → e ± + X D 0 → e + + X -	(c), (d) (c)
	F±=	1969.3	4.36 10 -13	→ ρ 0 + π ±	(c, s)
	B ± At 0	5277.6 5279.4	13.1 10 -13 13.1 10 -13	B ± → + π ± B 0 →+ π -0 +	(u), (b) (d), (b)
b	Proton p Neutron n	938.3 939.5	> 10 33 years old 898±16	n → p + e - +	uud udd
	Λ		2.63 10 -10	Λ→p + π -	uds
	Σ + Σ 0 Σ -	1189.4 1192 1197	0.8 10 -10 5.8 10 -20 1.48 10 -10	Σ + →p + π 0 Σ 0 → Λ+ γ Σ - →n + π -	uus uds dds
	Ξ 0 Ξ -	1314.9 1321	2.9 10 -10 1.64 10 -10	Ξ 0 → Λ+ π 0 Ξ - → Λ + π -	uss dss
	Ω -	1672	0.8 10 -10	Ω - → Λ+ K -	sss
	Σ s		Σ c →+ π →Ξ - π + π + →l - l	ucs usc dsc udb

The quark structure of hadrons makes it possible to single out in this large group of particles non-strange hadrons, which consist of non-strange quarks (u, d), strange hadrons, which include a strange quark s, charmed hadrons containing a c-quark, charm hadrons (bottom hadrons) with the b quark.
The table shows the properties of only a small part of hadrons: mesons and baryons. Their mass, lifetime, main decay modes and quark composition are shown. For mesons, the baryon number B \u003d O and the lepton number L \u003d 0. For baryons, the baryon number B \u003d 1, the lepton number L \u003d 0. Mesons are bosons (integer spin), baryons are fermions (half-integer spin).
Further consideration of the properties of hadrons allows us to combine them into isotopic multiplets consisting of particles with the same quantum numbers (baryon number, spin, internal parity, strangeness) and similar masses, but with different electric charges. Each isotopic multiplet is characterized by an isotopic spin I, which determines the total number of particles included in the multiplet, equal to 2I + 1. Isospin can take the values ​​0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . .., i.e. the existence of isotopic singlets, doublets, triplets, quartets, etc. is possible. So, a proton and a neutron make up an isotopic doublet, π + -, π - -, π 0 -mesons are considered as an isotopic triplet.
More complex objects in the microcosm are atomic nuclei. The atomic nucleus consists of Z protons and N neutrons. The sum Z + N = A is the number of nucleons in a given isotope. Often the tables give the value averaged over all isotopes, then it becomes fractional. Kernels are known for which the indicated values ​​are within: 1< А < 289, 1 < Z < 116.
The particles listed above are considered within the framework of the Standard Model. It is assumed that outside the Standard Model there can be another group of fundamental particles - supersymmetric particles (SUSY). They should provide symmetry between fermions and bosons. In table. 8 shows the supposed properties of this symmetry.

2.3. Field approach to the problem of interactions

2.3.1 Properties of fundamental interactions

The huge variety of physical phenomena occurring during collisions of elementary particles is determined by only four types of interactions: electromagnetic, weak, strong and gravitational. In quantum theory, the interaction is described in terms of the exchange of specific quanta (bosons) associated with a given type of interaction.
For a visual representation of the interaction of particles, the American physicist R. Feynman suggested using diagrams, which received his name. Feynman diagrams describe any process of interaction when two particles collide. Each particle involved in the process is represented by a line on the Feynman diagram. The free left or right end of the line indicates that the particle is in the initial or final state, respectively. The internal lines in the diagrams (that is, the lines that do not have free ends) correspond to the so-called virtual particles. These are particles that are born and absorbed in the process of interaction. They cannot be registered, unlike real particles. The interaction of particles in the diagram is represented by nodes (or vertices). The type of interaction is characterized by the coupling constant α, which can be written as: α = g 2 /ћc, where g is the charge of the interaction source, and is the main quantitative characteristic of the force acting between the particles. In electromagnetic interaction α e \u003d e 2 / ћc \u003d 1/137.

Fig.6. Feynman diagram.

The process a + b →с + d in the form of a Feynman diagram (Fig. 6) looks like this: R is a virtual particle that particles a and b exchange during the interaction determined by the interaction constant α = g 2 /ћc, which characterizes the strength of interaction at a distance , equal to the interaction radius.
A virtual particle can have a mass M x, and when this particle is exchanged, a 4-momentum is transferred t = −q 2 = Q 2 .
In table. 9 shows the characteristics different types interactions.

Electromagnetic interactions . The electromagnetic interactions to which all charged particles and photons are subject are most fully and consistently studied. The carrier of interaction is a photon. For electromagnetic forces, the interaction constant is numerically equal to the fine structure constant α e = e 2 /ћc = 1/137.
Examples of the simplest electromagnetic processes are the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, the formation of electron-positron pairs, and for charged particles, ionization scattering and bremsstrahlung. The theory of these interactions - quantum electrodynamics - is the most accurate physical theory.

Weak interactions. For the first time, weak interactions were observed in the β-decay of atomic nuclei. And, as it turned out, these decays are associated with the transformations of a proton into a neutron in the nucleus and vice versa:
p → n + e + + ν e , n → p + e - + e . Reverse reactions are also possible: electron capture e - + p → n + ν e or antineutrino e + p → e + + n. The weak interaction was described by Enrico Fermi in 1934 in terms of a four-fermion contact interaction defined by the Fermi constant
G F \u003d 1.4 10 -49 erg cm 3.
At very high energies, instead of the Fermi contact interaction, the weak interaction is described as an exchange interaction, in which there is an exchange of a quantum endowed with a weak charge g w (by analogy with an electric charge) and acting between fermions. Such quanta were first discovered in 1983 at the SppS Collider (CERN) by a team led by Karl Rubbia. These are charged bosons - W ± and neutral boson - Z 0 , their masses are respectively equal: m W± = 80 GeV/c 2 and m Z = 90 GeV/c 2 . The interaction constant α W in this case is expressed in terms of the Fermi constant:

Table 9. Main types of interactions and their characteristics

Structures of the microworld

Previously, elementary particles were called particles that make up the atom and are indecomposable into more elementary components, namely electrons and nuclei.

Later it was found that the nuclei are composed of more simple particles – nucleons(protons and neutrons), which in turn are made up of other particles. So elementary particles began to be considered the smallest particles of matter , excluding atoms and their nuclei .

To date, hundreds of elementary particles have been discovered, which requires their classification:

– by types of interactions

- by time of life

- the size of the back

Elementary particles are divided into the following groups:

Composite and fundamental (structureless) particles

Composite particles

Hadrons (heavy)– particles participating in all types of fundamental interactions. They consist of quarks and are subdivided, in turn, into: mesons- hadrons with integer spin, that is, being bosons; baryons- hadrons with half-integer spin, that is, fermions. These include, in particular, the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom - the proton and neutron, i.e. nucleons.

Fundamental (structureless) particles

Leptons (light)- fermions, which have the form of point particles (that is, they do not consist of anything) up to scales of the order of 10 − 18 m. They do not participate in strong interactions. Participation in electromagnetic interactions was experimentally observed only for charged leptons (electrons, muons, tau-leptons) and was not observed for neutrinos.

Quarks are fractionally charged particles that make up hadrons. They were not observed in the free state.

Gauge bosons- particles through the exchange of which interactions are carried out:

– photon – a particle carrying electromagnetic interaction;

- eight gluons - particles that carry the strong interaction;

are three intermediate vector bosons W + , W− and Z 0 , carrying weak interaction;

– graviton is a hypothetical particle carrying gravitational interaction. The existence of gravitons, although not yet experimentally proven due to the weakness of the gravitational interaction, is considered quite probable; however, the graviton is not included in the Standard Model of elementary particles.

According to modern concepts, fundamental particles (or “true” elementary particles) that do not have an internal structure and finite sizes include:

Quarks and leptons

Particles providing fundamental interactions: gravitons, photons, vector bosons, gluons.

Classification of elementary particles by lifetime:

- stable: particles whose lifetime is very long (it tends to infinity in the limit). These include electrons , protons , neutrino . Neutrons are also stable inside nuclei, but they are unstable outside the nucleus.

- unstable (quasi-stable): elementary particles are particles that decay due to electromagnetic and weak interactions, and whose lifetime is more than 10–20 sec. These particles include free neutron (i.e. a neutron outside the nucleus of an atom)

- resonances (unstable, short lived). Resonances include elementary particles that decay due to strong interaction. The lifetime for them is less than 10 -20 sec.

Classification of particles by participation in interactions:

- leptons : Neutrons are also among them. All of them do not participate in the whirlpool of intranuclear interactions, i.e. not subject to strong interaction. They participate in the weak interaction, and having an electric charge participate in the electromagnetic interaction.

- hadrons : particles that exist inside the atomic nucleus and participate in the strong interaction. The most famous of them are proton and neutron .

Currently known six leptons :

Muons and tau particles, which are similar to the electron but more massive, belong to the same family as the electron. Muons and tau particles are unstable and eventually decay into several other particles, including an electron.

Three electrically neutral particles with zero (or close to zero, scientists have not yet decided on this matter) mass, called neutrino . Each of the three neutrinos (electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino) is paired with one of the three types of particles of the electron family.

The most famous hadrons , protons and neutrinos, there are hundreds of relatives, which are born in many and immediately decay in the process of various nuclear reactions. With the exception of the proton, they are all unstable and can be classified according to the composition of the particles they decay into:

If there is a proton among the final decay products of particles, then it is called baryon

If there is no proton among the decay products, then the particle is called meson .

The chaotic picture of the subatomic world, which became more complicated with the discovery of each new hadron, gave way to a new picture, with the advent of the concept of quarks. According to the quark model, all hadrons (but not leptons) consist of even more elementary particles - quarks. So baryons (particularly the proton) are made up of three quarks, and mesons from a quark-antiquark pair.

These three particles (as well as others described below) mutually attract and repel each other according to their charges, which are only four types according to the number of fundamental forces of nature. Charges can be arranged in order of decreasing corresponding forces as follows: color charge (forces of interaction between quarks); electric charge (electric and magnetic forces); weak charge (strength in some radioactive processes); finally, mass (gravitational force, or gravitational interaction). The word "color" here has nothing to do with the color of visible light; it is simply a characteristic of the strongest charge and the greatest forces.

Charges persist, i.e. The charge entering the system is equal to the charge leaving it. If the total electric charge of a certain number of particles before their interaction is, say, 342 units, then after the interaction, regardless of its result, it will be equal to 342 units. This also applies to other charges: color (strong interaction charge), weak and mass (mass). Particles differ in their charges: in essence, they "are" these charges. Charges are, as it were, a “certificate” of the right to respond to the corresponding force. Thus, only colored particles are affected by color forces, only electrically charged particles are affected by electric forces, and so on. The properties of a particle are determined by the greatest force acting on it. Only quarks are carriers of all charges and, therefore, are subject to the action of all forces, among which color is dominant. Electrons have all charges except color, and the dominant force for them is the electromagnetic force.

The most stable in nature are, as a rule, neutral combinations of particles in which the charge of particles of one sign is compensated by the total charge of particles of another sign. This corresponds to the minimum energy of the entire system. (Similarly, two bar magnets are placed in a line, with North Pole one of them is facing south pole another, which corresponds to the minimum energy of the magnetic field.) Gravity is an exception to this rule: there is no negative mass. There are no bodies that would fall up.

TYPES OF MATTER

Ordinary matter is formed from electrons and quarks, grouped into objects that are neutral in color, and then in electric charge. The color force is neutralized, as will be discussed in more detail below, when the particles are combined into triplets. (Hence the term “color” itself, taken from optics: the three primary colors, when mixed, give white.) Thus, quarks, for which the color power is dominant, form triplets. But quarks, and they are subdivided into u-quarks (from English up - upper) and d-quarks (from the English down - lower), they also have an electric charge equal to u-quark and for d-quark. Two u-quark and one d-quark give an electric charge +1 and form a proton, and one u-quark and two d-quarks give zero electric charge and form a neutron.

Stable protons and neutrons, attracted to each other by the residual color forces of interaction between their constituent quarks, form a color-neutral atomic nucleus. But the nuclei carry a positive electric charge and, by attracting negative electrons that revolve around the nucleus like planets revolving around the Sun, tend to form a neutral atom. Electrons in their orbits are removed from the nucleus by distances tens of thousands of times greater than the radius of the nucleus - evidence that the electrical forces holding them are much weaker than nuclear ones. Due to the power of color interaction, 99.945% of the mass of an atom is enclosed in its nucleus. Weight u- and d-quarks are about 600 times the mass of an electron. Therefore, electrons are much lighter and more mobile than nuclei. Their movement in matter causes electrical phenomena.

There are several hundred natural varieties of atoms (including isotopes) that differ in the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus and, accordingly, in the number of electrons in orbits. The simplest is the hydrogen atom, consisting of a nucleus in the form of a proton and a single electron revolving around it. All "visible" matter in nature consists of atoms and partially "disassembled" atoms, which are called ions. Ions are atoms that, having lost (or gained) a few electrons, have become charged particles. Matter, consisting almost of one ions, is called plasma. Stars that burn due to thermonuclear reactions going on in the centers are composed mainly of plasma, and since stars are the most common form of matter in the Universe, it can be said that the entire Universe consists mainly of plasma. More precisely, stars are predominantly fully ionized gaseous hydrogen, i.e. a mixture of individual protons and electrons, and therefore almost the entire visible universe consists of it.

This is visible matter. But there is still invisible matter in the Universe. And there are particles that act as carriers of forces. There are antiparticles and excited states of some particles. All this leads to a clearly excessive abundance of "elementary" particles. In this abundance, one can find an indication of the real, true nature of elementary particles and the forces acting between them. According to the most recent theories, particles can basically be extended geometric objects - "strings" in ten-dimensional space.

Invisible world.

There is not only visible matter in the universe (but also black holes and "dark matter", such as cold planets, which become visible when illuminated). There is also a truly invisible matter that permeates all of us and the entire Universe every second. It is a fast-moving gas of one kind of particles - electron neutrinos.

The electron neutrino is the partner of the electron, but has no electric charge. Neutrinos carry only the so-called weak charge. Their rest mass is, in all likelihood, zero. But they interact with the gravitational field, because they have kinetic energy E, which corresponds to the effective mass m, according to the Einstein formula E = mc 2 , where c is the speed of light.

The key role of the neutrino is that it contributes to the transformation and-quarks in d quarks, resulting in the transformation of a proton into a neutron. The neutrino plays the role of the "carburetor needle" for stellar thermonuclear reactions, in which four protons (hydrogen nuclei) combine to form a helium nucleus. But since the helium nucleus consists not of four protons, but of two protons and two neutrons, for such nuclear fusion it is necessary that two and-quarks turned into two d-quark. The intensity of the transformation determines how fast the stars will burn. And the transformation process is determined by weak charges and forces of weak interaction between particles. Wherein and-quark (electric charge +2/3, weak charge +1/2), interacting with an electron (electric charge - 1, weak charge -1/2), forms d-quark (electric charge -1/3, weak charge -1/2) and electron neutrino (electric charge 0, weak charge +1/2). The color charges (or simply colors) of the two quarks cancel out in this process without the neutrino. The role of the neutrino is to carry away the uncompensated weak charge. Therefore, the rate of transformation depends on how weak the weak forces are. If they were weaker than they are, then the stars would not burn at all. If they were stronger, then the stars would have burned out long ago.

But what about neutrinos? Since these particles interact extremely weakly with other matter, they almost immediately leave the stars in which they were born. All stars shine, emitting neutrinos, and neutrinos shine through our bodies and the entire Earth day and night. So they wander through the Universe, until they enter, perhaps, into a new interaction of the STAR) .

Interaction carriers.

What causes forces that act between particles at a distance? Modern physics answers: due to the exchange of other particles. Imagine two skaters tossing a ball around. Giving the ball momentum when throwing and receiving momentum with the received ball, both get a push in the direction from each other. This can explain the emergence of repulsive forces. But in quantum mechanics, which considers phenomena in the microworld, unusual stretching and delocalization of events are allowed, which leads, it would seem, to the impossible: one of the skaters throws the ball in the direction from the other, but the one nonetheless maybe catch this ball. It is not difficult to imagine that if this were possible (and in the world of elementary particles it is possible), there would be attraction between the skaters.

Particles, due to the exchange of which interaction forces arise between the four “particles of matter” discussed above, are called gauge particles. Each of the four interactions - strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational - has its own set of gauge particles. The strong interaction carrier particles are gluons (there are only eight of them). A photon is a carrier of electromagnetic interaction (it is one, and we perceive photons as light). The particles-carriers of the weak interaction are intermediate vector bosons (in 1983 and 1984 were discovered W + -, W- -bosons and neutral Z-boson). The particle-carrier of the gravitational interaction is still a hypothetical graviton (it must be one). All these particles, except for the photon and graviton, which can travel infinitely long distances, exist only in the process of exchange between material particles. Photons fill the Universe with light, and gravitons - with gravitational waves (not yet detected with certainty).

A particle capable of emitting gauge particles is said to be surrounded by an appropriate force field. Thus, electrons capable of emitting photons are surrounded by electrical and magnetic fields, as well as weak and gravitational fields. Quarks are also surrounded by all these fields, but also by the field of strong interaction. Particles with a color charge in the field of color forces are affected by the color force. The same applies to other forces of nature. Therefore, we can say that the world consists of matter (material particles) and field (gauge particles). More on this below.

Antimatter.

Each particle corresponds to an antiparticle, with which the particle can mutually annihilate, i.e. "annihilate", as a result of which energy is released. "Pure" energy by itself, however, does not exist; as a result of annihilation, new particles (for example, photons) appear, carrying away this energy.

An antiparticle in most cases has the opposite properties with respect to the corresponding particle: if a particle moves to the left under the action of strong, weak or electromagnetic fields, then its antiparticle will move to the right. In short, the antiparticle has opposite signs of all charges (except the mass charge). If a particle is composite, like, for example, a neutron, then its antiparticle consists of components with opposite charge signs. Thus, an antielectron has an electric charge of +1, a weak charge of +1/2 and is called a positron. The antineutron is made up of and-antiquarks with electric charge –2/3 and d-antiquarks with electric charge +1/3. Truly neutral particles are their own antiparticles: the photon's antiparticle is the photon.

According to modern theoretical concepts, each particle that exists in nature must have its own antiparticle. And many antiparticles, including positrons and antineutrons, were indeed obtained in the laboratory. The consequences of this are exceptionally important and underlie the entire experimental physics of elementary particles. According to the theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent, and under certain conditions, energy can be converted into mass. Since charge is conserved and the charge of vacuum (empty space) is zero, any pair of particles and antiparticles (with zero net charge) can emerge from vacuum, like rabbits from a magician's hat, as long as the energy is sufficient to create their mass.

Generations of particles.

Accelerator experiments have shown that the quadruple (quartet) of material particles is repeated at least twice at higher mass values. In the second generation, the place of the electron is occupied by the muon (with a mass about 200 times greater than the mass of the electron, but with the same values ​​of all other charges), the place of the electron neutrino is the muon (which accompanies the muon in weak interactions in the same way that the electron accompanies the electron neutrino), place and-quark occupies with-quark ( charmed), a d-quark - s-quark ( strange). In the third generation, the quartet consists of a tau lepton, a tau neutrino, t-quark and b-quark.

Weight t-quark is about 500 times the mass of the lightest one - d-quark. It has been experimentally established that there are only three types of light neutrinos. Thus, the fourth generation of particles either does not exist at all, or the corresponding neutrinos are very heavy. This is consistent with cosmological data, according to which there can be no more than four types of light neutrinos.

In experiments with high-energy particles, the electron, muon, tau-lepton and the corresponding neutrinos act as separate particles. They do not carry a color charge and only enter into weak and electromagnetic interactions. Collectively they are called leptons.

Table 2. GENERATIONS OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Particle	Rest mass, MeV/ with 2	Electric charge	color charge	Weak charge
SECOND GENERATION
with-quark	1500	+2/3	Red, green or blue	+1/2
s-quark	500	–1/3	Same	–1/2
Muon neutrino		0	0	+1/2
Muon	106	0	0	–1/2
THIRD GENERATION
t-quark	30000–174000	+2/3	Red, green or blue	+1/2
b-quark	4700	–1/3	Same	–1/2
Tau neutrino		0	0	+1/2
Tau	1777	–1	0	–1/2

Quarks, on the other hand, under the influence of color forces, combine into strongly interacting particles that dominate most experiments in high-energy physics. Such particles are called hadrons. They include two subclasses: baryons(e.g. proton and neutron), which are made up of three quarks, and mesons consisting of a quark and an antiquark. In 1947, the first meson, called the pion (or pi-meson), was discovered in cosmic rays, and for some time it was believed that the exchange of these particles was the main cause of nuclear forces. The omega-minus hadrons, discovered in 1964 at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (USA), and the j-psy particle ( J/y-meson), discovered simultaneously in Brookhaven and at the Stanford Center for Linear Accelerators (also in the USA) in 1974. The existence of the omega-minus particle was predicted by M. Gell-Mann in his so-called " SU 3-theory” (another name is the “eight-fold way”), in which the possibility of the existence of quarks was first suggested (and this name was given to them). A decade later, the discovery of the particle J/y confirmed the existence with-quark and finally made everyone believe in both the quark model and the theory that combined electromagnetic and weak forces ( see below).

Particles of the second and third generations are no less real than those of the first. True, having arisen, they decay in millionths or billionths of a second into ordinary particles of the first generation: an electron, an electron neutrino, and also and- and d-quarks. The question of why there are several generations of particles in nature is still a mystery.

Different generations of quarks and leptons are often spoken of (which is, of course, somewhat eccentric) as different "flavors" of particles. The need to explain them is called the "flavor" problem.

BOSONS AND FERMIONS, FIELD AND SUBSTANCE

One of the fundamental differences between particles is the difference between bosons and fermions. All particles are divided into these two main classes. Like bosons can overlap or overlap, but like fermions can't. Superposition occurs (or does not occur) in the discrete energy states into which quantum mechanics divides nature. These states are, as it were, separate cells into which particles can be placed. So, in one cell you can put any number of identical bosons, but only one fermion.

As an example, consider such cells, or "states", for an electron revolving around the nucleus of an atom. Unlike the planets of the solar system, according to the laws of quantum mechanics, an electron cannot circulate in any elliptical orbit, for it there is only a discrete number of allowed "states of motion". Sets of such states, grouped according to the distance from the electron to the nucleus, are called orbitals. In the first orbital, there are two states with different angular momenta and, therefore, two allowed cells, and in higher orbitals, eight or more cells.

Since an electron is a fermion, each cell can contain only one electron. From this come very important implications- all chemistry, since the chemical properties of substances are determined by the interactions between the corresponding atoms. If you go along periodic system elements from one atom to another in order of increasing by one the number of protons in the nucleus (the number of electrons will also increase accordingly), then the first two electrons will occupy the first orbital, the next eight will be located in the second, and so on. This successive change in the electronic structure of atoms from element to element determines the regularities in their chemical properties.

If the electrons were bosons, then all the electrons of an atom could occupy the same orbital corresponding to the minimum energy. In this case, the properties of all matter in the Universe would be completely different, and in the form in which we know it, the Universe would be impossible.

All leptons - electron, muon, tau-lepton and their corresponding neutrino - are fermions. The same can be said about quarks. Thus, all particles that form "matter", the main filler of the Universe, as well as invisible neutrinos, are fermions. This is very significant: fermions cannot combine, so the same applies to objects in the material world.

At the same time, all "gauge particles" exchanged between interacting material particles and which create a field of forces ( see above), are bosons, which is also very important. So, for example, many photons can be in the same state, forming a magnetic field around a magnet or an electric field around an electric charge. Thanks to this, a laser is also possible.

Spin.

The difference between bosons and fermions is connected with another characteristic of elementary particles - back. Surprising as it may seem, but all fundamental particles have their own angular momentum or, more simply, rotate around their own axis. The angular momentum is a characteristic of rotational motion, just like the total momentum is of translational motion. In any interaction, angular momentum and momentum are conserved.

In the microcosm, the angular momentum is quantized, i.e. takes discrete values. In suitable units, leptons and quarks have a spin of 1/2, and gauge particles have a spin of 1 (except for the graviton, which has not yet been observed experimentally, but theoretically should have a spin of 2). Since leptons and quarks are fermions, and gauge particles are bosons, it can be assumed that "fermionicity" is associated with spin 1/2, and "bosonicity" is associated with spin 1 (or 2). Indeed, both experiment and theory confirm that if a particle has a half-integer spin, then it is a fermion, and if it is integer, then it is a boson.

GAUGE THEORIES AND GEOMETRY

In all cases, the forces arise due to the exchange of bosons between fermions. Thus, the color force of interaction between two quarks (quarks - fermions) arises due to the exchange of gluons. Such an exchange constantly takes place in protons, neutrons and atomic nuclei. Similarly, photons exchanged between electrons and quarks create electrical attractive forces that hold electrons in an atom, and intermediate vector bosons exchanged between leptons and quarks create weak interaction forces responsible for the conversion of protons into neutrons in thermonuclear reactions in stars.

The theory of such an exchange is elegant, simple, and probably correct. It is called gauge theory. But at present there are only independent gauge theories of strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions and a gauge theory of gravity similar to them, although in some ways different. One of the most important physical problems is the reduction of these separate theories into a single and at the same time simple theory, in which all of them would become different aspects of a single reality - like the facets of a crystal.

Table 3. SOME HADRONS

Table 3. SOME HADRONS
Particle	Symbol	Quark composition *	rest mass, MeV/ with 2	Electric charge
BARYONS
Proton	p	uud	938	+1
Neutron	n	udd	940	0
Omega minus	W-	sss	1672	–1
MESONS
Pi plus	p +	u	140	+1
Pi-minus	p –	du	140	–1
fi	f	sє	1020	0
JPS	J/y	cў	3100	0
Upsilon	Ў	b	9460	0
* Quark composition: u- upper; d- lower; s- strange; c- enchanted b- beautiful. The line above the letter denotes antiquarks.

The simplest and oldest of gauge theories is the gauge theory of electromagnetic interaction. In it, the charge of an electron is compared (calibrated) with the charge of another electron distant from it. How can charges be compared? You can, for example, bring the second electron closer to the first and compare their interaction forces. But doesn't the charge of an electron change when it moves to another point in space? The only way to check is to send a signal from the near electron to the far one and see how it reacts. The signal is a gauge particle - a photon. In order to be able to check the charge on distant particles, a photon is needed.

Mathematically, this theory is distinguished by extreme precision and beauty. The whole of quantum electrodynamics follows from the "gauge principle" described above ( quantum theory electromagnetism), as well as the theory electromagnetic field Maxwell is one of the greatest scientific achievements 19th century

Why is such a simple principle so fruitful? Apparently, it expresses some correlation different parts Universe, allowing measurements in the Universe. In mathematical terms, the field is interpreted geometrically as the curvature of some conceivable "internal" space. The measurement of charge is the measurement of the total "internal curvature" around the particle. The gauge theories of strong and weak interactions differ from the electromagnetic gauge theory only in the internal geometric "structure" of the corresponding charge. The question of where exactly this inner space is located is being answered by multidimensional unified field theories, which are not considered here.

Table 4. FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS
Interaction	Relative intensity at a distance of 10–13 cm	Radius of action	Interaction carrier	Carrier rest mass, MeV/ with 2	Carrier spin
Strong	1		Gluon	0	1
Electro- magnetic	0,01	Ґ	Photon	0	1
Weak	10 –13		W +	80400	1
			W –	80400	1
			Z 0	91190	1
Gravity- rational	10 –38	Ґ	graviton	0	2

The physics of elementary particles is not completed yet. It is still far from clear whether the available data are sufficient to fully understand the nature of particles and forces, as well as the true nature and dimensions of space and time. Do we need experiments with energies of 10 15 GeV for this, or will the effort of thought be enough? There is no answer yet. But we can say with confidence that the final picture will be simple, elegant and beautiful. It is possible that there will be not so many fundamental ideas: the gauge principle, spaces of higher dimensions, collapse and expansion, and, above all, geometry.

±1 1 80,4 Weak interaction Z0 0 1 91,2 Weak interaction Gluon 0 1 0 Strong interaction Higgs boson 0 0 ≈125.09±0.24 inertial mass

Generation		Quarks with charge (+2/3)				Quarks with charge (−1/3)
			Quark/antiquark symbol	Mass (MeV)		Name/flavor of quark/antiquark	Quark/antiquark symbol	Mass (MeV)
1		u-quark (up-quark) / anti-u-quark	$u\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(u)$	from 1.5 to 3		d-quark (down-quark) / anti-d-quark	$d\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(d)$	4.79±0.07
2		c-quark (charm-quark) / anti-c-quark	$c\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(c)$	1250±90		s-quark (strange quark) / anti-s-quark	$s\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(s)$	95±25
3		t-quark (top-quark) / anti-t-quark	$t\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(t)$	174 200 ± 3300		b-quark (bottom-quark) / anti-b-quark	$b\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(b)$	4200±70

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Notes

Links

• S. A. Slavatinsky// Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Dolgoprudny, Moscow region)
• Slavatinsky S.A. // SOZH, 2001, No 2, p. 62–68 archive web.archive.org/web/20060116134302/journal.issep.rssi.ru/annot.php?id=S1176
• // nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru
• // second-physics.ru
• // physics.ru
• // nature.web.ru
• // nature.web.ru
• // nature.web.ru

Fundamental particles Composite particles Connections fundamental and/or constituent particles Ordinary Unusual Other classification particles

An excerpt characterizing the Fundamental particle

The next day he woke up late. Resuming the impressions of the past, he remembered, first of all, that today he had to introduce himself to Emperor Franz, remembered the Minister of War, the courteous Austrian adjutant's wing, Bilibin, and the conversation of the previous evening. Dressing in full dress uniform, which he had not worn for a long time, for a trip to the palace, he, fresh, lively and handsome, with a bandaged hand, entered Bilibin's office. There were four gentlemen of the diplomatic corps in the office. With Prince Ippolit Kuragin, who was the secretary of the embassy, ​​Bolkonsky was familiar; Bilibin introduced him to others.
The gentlemen who visited Bilibin, secular, young, rich and cheerful people, both in Vienna and here, made up a separate circle, which Bilibin, who was the head of this circle, called ours, les nеtres. This circle, which consisted almost exclusively of diplomats, apparently had its own interests of high society, relations with certain women, and the clerical side of the service, which had nothing to do with war and politics. These gentlemen, apparently, willingly, as their own (an honor that they did to a few), accepted Prince Andrei into their circle. Out of courtesy, and as a subject for entering into conversation, several questions were put to him about the army and the battle, and the conversation again crumbled into inconsistent, merry jokes and gossip.
“But it’s especially good,” said one, telling the failure of a fellow diplomat, “it’s especially good that the chancellor told him directly that his appointment to London was a promotion, and that he should look at it that way. Do you see his figure at the same time? ...
"But what's worse, gentlemen, I betray Kuragin to you: a man is in misfortune, and this Don Juan, this terrible man, is taking advantage of this!"
Prince Hippolyte was lying in a Voltaire chair, with his legs over the handle. He laughed.
- Parlez moi de ca, [Well, well, well,] - he said.
Oh, Don Juan! Oh snake! voices were heard.
“You don’t know, Bolkonsky,” Bilibin turned to Prince Andrei, “that all the horrors of the French army (I almost said the Russian army) are nothing compared to what this man did between women.
- La femme est la compagne de l "homme, [A woman is a man's friend,] - said Prince Hippolyte and began to look at his raised legs through a lorgnette.
Bilibin and ours burst out laughing, looking into Ippolit's eyes. Prince Andrei saw that this Ippolit, whom he (he had to confess) was almost jealous of his wife, was a jester in this society.
“No, I have to treat you with Kuragins,” Bilibin said quietly to Bolkonsky. - He is charming when he talks about politics, you need to see this importance.
He sat down next to Hippolyte and, gathering his folds on his forehead, started a conversation with him about politics. Prince Andrei and others surrounded them both.
- Le cabinet de Berlin ne peut pas exprimer un sentiment d "alliance," Hippolyte began, looking around significantly at everyone, "sans exprimer ... comme dans sa derieniere note ... vous comprenez ... vous comprenez ... et puis si sa Majeste l "Empereur ne deroge pas au principe de notre alliance… [The Berlin cabinet cannot express its opinion on the alliance without expressing… as in its last note… you understand… you understand… however, if His Majesty the Emperor does not change the essence of our alliance…]
- Attendez, je n "ai pas fini ... - he said to Prince Andrei, grabbing his hand. - Je suppose que l" intervention sera plus forte que la non intervention. Et…” He paused. - On ne pourra pas imputer a la fin de non recevoir notre depeche du 28 Novembre. Voila comment tout cela finira. [Wait, I didn't finish. I think that intervention will be stronger than non-intervention. And ... It is impossible to consider the case as completed by the non-acceptance of our dispatch of November 28th. How will this all end?]
And he let go of Bolkonsky's hand, showing by the fact that now he had completely finished.
- Demosthenes, je te reconnais au caillou que tu as cache dans ta bouche d "or! [Demosthenes, I recognize you by the pebble that you hide in your golden lips!] - said Bilibin, whose hat of hair moved on his head with pleasure .
Everyone laughed. Hippolyte laughed the loudest. He was apparently suffering, suffocating, but he could not help laughing wildly, stretching his always motionless face.
- Well, gentlemen, - said Bilibin, - Bolkonsky is my guest in the house and here in Brunn, and I want to treat him as much as I can with all the joys of life here. If we were in Brunn, it would be easy; but here, dans ce vilain trou morave [in that nasty Moravian hole], it is more difficult, and I ask you all for help. Il faut lui faire les honneurs de Brunn. [I need to show him Brunn.] You take over the theatre, I take over society, you, Hippolyte, of course, take over the women.
- We must show him Amelie, lovely! one of ours said, kissing the tips of his fingers.
“In general, this bloodthirsty soldier,” Bilibin said, “should be turned to more philanthropic views.
“I can hardly take advantage of your hospitality, gentlemen, and now it’s time for me to go,” Bolkonsky said, looking at his watch.
- Where?
- To the emperor.
- O! about! about!
- Well, goodbye, Bolkonsky! Goodbye, prince; come to dinner earlier, - voices followed. - We take care of you.
“Try as much as possible to praise the order in the delivery of provisions and routes when you speak with the emperor,” said Bilibin, escorting Bolkonsky to the front.
“And I would like to praise, but I can’t, as far as I know,” answered Bolkonsky smiling.
Well, talk as much as you can. His passion is audiences; but he does not like to speak and does not know how, as you will see.