Revolutionary changes in France 1848 1849 briefly. History of the French Revolutions. Somersaults of the 19th century

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and the establishment of the empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 and establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, gradually turning into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters, leading to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France spent a lot on unsuccessful wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took loans, the interest on which was unbearable for it. The only way to increase revenues to the treasury was to deprive the tax privileges of the first and second estates. Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three classes: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility and the third - all the rest. The first two estates had a number of privileges, including being exempted from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting the resistance of the noble parliaments. Parliaments- before the revolution, the highest courts of the fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Parlement of Paris existed, then the remaining thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the Estates General Estates General- a body that included representatives of the three estates and convened on the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three classes. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public outcry: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters issued orders to deputies: few people wanted a revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, while at the same time counting on limiting its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land as their property; among the townspeople, the ideas of the enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the well-known brochure of Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes “What is the third estate?”, Containing the following passage, was published in January 1789: “1. What is the third estate - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something"). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, and not the king, should have the highest power in the country, that absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one, and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly defined laws that are the same for all citizens.

The Great French Revolution and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy

The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Hoehl. 1789

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

Beginning of the Estates General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

Storming of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the Estates General opened at Versailles. By tradition, each class had one vote during the voting. Deputies from the third estate, who were twice as many as deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up for discussion only financial reforms. On June 17, the deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drafted. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new state system in France.

Soon a rumor spread around Paris that the government was gathering troops to Versailles and was planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the highest authority in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from August 5 to August 11, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were abolished.

The overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted the constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. The laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. Executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official who obeyed the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; Church property was nationalized and sold.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood
". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790, in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected in 1789 to the States General from the third estate.

Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its storming had a symbolic, not pragmatic meaning, although it was taken in the hope of finding weapons there. By decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The Declaration of the Rights of Man stated that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and declared human rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression to be natural and inalienable. In addition, it consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

The execution of the king and the establishment of the republic

The last moments of the life of Louis XVI. Engraving after a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793

Wellcome Library

Chronology

Beginning of the war with Austria

Deposition of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

Execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm II and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military . Girondins Girondins- a circle that has developed around the deputies from the department of the Gironde, who advocated further changes, but adhered to relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the king's execution., supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to go to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When the French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed for this.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying the national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned its powers: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For these purposes, a new legislative body was assembled - the elected National Convention, which first of all proclaimed France a republic.

In December, the trial began, which found the king guilty of maliciously against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, part-time poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost that status under Napoleon, and finally regained it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of left-wing resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870

Alte Nationalgalerie Berlin

Chronology

By decree of the Convention, an Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established, which in October will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal

Creation of the Committee of Public Safety

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Year I Constitution, or Montañar Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup of 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to suffer setbacks in the war. Monarchist rebellions broke out inside the country. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to try "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the domestic and foreign policy of the country.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the introduction of emergency measures, some expressed outrage that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Montagnards competing with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group, based, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at meetings of the Legislative Assembly, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. sent against the Girondins disaffected urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention demanding the exclusion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution adopted in 1793 did not come into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Practically all power was now concentrated in his hands; The Convention sent commissars with great powers to the localities. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotining. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell the lands of emigrants to the peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which the prices of the most necessary goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid shortages, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.

By the end of 1793, most of the rebellions were suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the Suspicious Law, which ordered the detention of all people who were not accused of any crime, but could have committed one. From June 1794, interrogations of defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as mandatory interrogations of witnesses, were abolished at the Revolutionary Tribunal; for people found guilty by the tribunal, there was now only one punishment - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, the Robespierreists began to talk about the need for a final wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were in danger. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II of the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilian Robespierre, and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention who feared for their lives. On July 28 they were executed.

After the coup, terror quickly declined, the Jacobin Club Jacobin club- a political club formed in 1789 and meeting in a Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assembly, and later to the Convention; they played a big part in the policy of terror that was carried out. was closed. The power of the Committee of Public Safety diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Directory

In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was handed over to the bicameral Legislative Corps, and the executive to the Directory, which consisted of five directors, who were selected by the Council of Elders (the upper house of the Legislative Corps) from a list presented by the Council of Five Hundred (lower house). The members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not too successfully: for example, on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular as a result of his military successes in Italy, declared martial law in Paris and annulled the results of the elections in The legislature in many regions of France, since they received the majority of the royalists, who now constituted a fairly strong opposition.

Coup of 18 Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire, 8th year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, dispersing the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also deprived of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. All three conspirators became them.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. To the white color of the Bourbons, used on the flag before the revolution, blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard, were added.

Republican calendar. On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was put into circulation, the first year of which was 1792. All the months in the calendar received new names: time from the revolution had to start anew. In 1806 the calendar was abolished.

Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public even before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of the empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Fragment of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

The adoption of the Constitution of the X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution of Year VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). Napoleon Bonaparte was named the first of the three consuls. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were actually abolished.

In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became for life, and the first consul received the right to appoint his successor.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was uncovered, the purpose of which was to assassinate Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary in order to exclude such a thing in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "Emperor of the French", who declared Napoleon Bonaparte. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that regulated the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of landed property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: due to constant recruitment into the army, both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with an excess of workers, which led to an increase in income. He dealt harshly with the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France, became enormous.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called the Napoleon (Napoléon d’or, literally “golden Napoleon”) received circulation: it depicted the profile of Bonaparte.

Legion of Honor. Order founded by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802 following the example of knightly orders. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special merits to France.

Restoration of the Bourbons and the July Monarchy

Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830

Musee du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Capture of Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of King Louis XVIII

Promulgation of the Charter of 1814

Escape of Napoleon from Elba

Capture of Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Abdication of Napoleon

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July ordinances

Mass unrest

Abdication of Charles X

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on he became king of the French, Louis Philippe I.

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and finances put in order. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries subject to him to trade with England - as a result of the industrial revolution, England forced out French goods from the markets. The so-called Continental Blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis had affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French troops in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin a retreat from Moscow, which was occupied in September.

Restoration of the Bourbons
On October 16-19, 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two chambers of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was again established, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who had a certain level of prosperity.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate peace with European countries failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated again, and on July 15 he surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July Revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chambers of Deputies were closed, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular Prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, the increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

The ordinances of Charles X caused mass indignation. On July 27, riots began in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution ended, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated and left for England.

The Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons, who had a relatively liberal reputation, became the new king of France. During his coronation, he took an oath on the Charter of 1830 drawn up by deputies and became not "king by the grace of God" like his predecessors, but "king of the French". The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with an eagle returned to replace the coat of arms with three lilies, which symbolized royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Liberty Leading the People". Eugène Delacroix's famous painting, centered on Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) holding the French tricolor in her hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoteaux

Musee du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

The beginning of the riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of a new constitution that consolidated the republican form of government




General presidential election, victory for Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded the expansion of suffrage, others demanded the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. In 1846 and 1847 there was a poor harvest. Hunger has begun. Since rallies were banned, in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts were proclaimed for the republic. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. On February 23, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. A huge crowd was waiting for him to leave the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired, most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated and fled to England. France proclaimed a republic and introduced universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. Parliament (returning the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election took place, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the vote. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Republicans received only 70 seats.

Symbols


Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. The Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for the barricades.

1851 coup and Second Empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

Promulgation of the new constitution. By changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year, the Second Empire was created

Proclamation of Napoleon III as Emperor of the French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of either the President, or the Parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's presidential term was coming to an end. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon demanded several times to revise this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, supported by the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition members. The riots that began in Paris and in the provinces were harshly suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, extending the presidential powers for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, with the deputies of its upper house appointed by the president for life.

Empire Restoration
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, the powers of Parliament were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but from the 1860s the course changed. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon started new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and rebuild the whole of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Proclamation of the Republic
On September 4, France was again proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was chosen, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. There was famine in the city, the situation worsened. In February 1871, elections were held for the National Assembly, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, followed by a German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many citizens perceived as treason.

In March, the government, which had no funds, refused to pay the National Guard's salaries and tried to disarm it.

Parisian Commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops went on the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally crushed - a week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was saved. In 1875, the Constitutional Laws were passed, which approved the post of president and a parliament elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The Third Republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power passing from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but the members of the commune, among whom were many socialists, preferred a single color red. The paraphernalia of the Paris Commune, one of the key events for the formation of communist ideology, was adopted by Russian revolutionaries as well.

Vendôme column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875 the column was installed again.

Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine style basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and has become one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material. 

Question 31.Revolution of 1848 - 1849 in France. Second republic in France.

On the eve of the revolution, France found itself in a difficult situation, which was caused by a serious economic crisis.

1) France is facing an overproduction crisis

2) 1845 - 1846 - lean years. A wave of urban riots, Republicans begin to intensify, who demand the elimination of the constitutional monarchy and the establishment of a republic.

In January 1848, at a meeting of parliament, the opposition severely criticized the work of Guizot's government. He was accused that his policy was conservative and that nothing had been done for the people.

February 22 – The government passes a decree banning Republican meetings. In their support, a demonstration is organized, shot by troops. The people began to arm themselves. Paris was barricaded. King Louis-Philippe of France dismissed the government of Guizot. This did not help, then Louis-Philippe flees to England. Republicans expel all monarchists from parliament and elect a provisional government. February 25, 1848 France proclaimed a republic (2nd republic in France).

Provisional government:

1) eliminates the title of nobility

2) releases all political prisoners and adopts a decree abolishing the death penalty for political crimes.

3) proclaimed freedom of conscience, press and assembly.

4) universal suffrage was introduced (men from 21 years old, living in the same locality for at least 6 months). The number of voters increased from 200 thousand people to 9 million.

5) Unprecedented measures to combat unemployment. For this, national workshops were introduced. They performed public works (repairing roads, streets, cleaning squares, etc.). The government wanted to distract the people from the revolutionary struggle. The workshops were organized according to the military type: they were divided into brigades, platoons and companies, each unit was headed by a commander who supervised the work. By May 1848, more than 100 thousand people were already working in the workshops. They also included bankrupt entrepreneurs and small artisans, etc.

As soon as the provisional government adopts a decree on the abolition of national workshops, the people begin to revolt even more. The reason for the cancellation is the difficult financial situation of the government. It tried to persuade the bourgeoisie to issue a national loan at high interest. The bourgeoisie refused. The issue with the national workshops remained open. In April 1848, the provisional government set the date for the elections - April 23, 1848. In the elections, the Republicans won the majority (550 seats in parliament out of 800).

On May 4, 1848, the constituent assembly begins its work. June 22, 1848 the constituent assembly adopts a decree banning national workshops. According to him, men from 18 to 25 years old from the workshops were sent to the army, and the rest - to drain the swamps in the province. The inhabitants of Paris again began to set up barricades. The government imposes a state of siege and uses artillery to disperse the riot.

General Kovignac is dispersing the rebels. The political weight of which increased after that. After the suppression of the uprising, he forms a government. Its backbone is made up of moderate Republicans. On July 2, 1848, the government issues a decree confirming the abolition of national workshops, and in September increases direct taxation.

November 4, 1848 A new constitution is adopted, according to which France becomes a presidential republic. Legislative power was concentrated in the legislative assembly. Its term of office is 3 years, it was elected on the basis of universal suffrage (men from 21 years old, living in the same locality for at least 6 months). The executive power belonged to the president, elected for 4 years, without the right to re-election for a second term. He had the broadest powers: in fact, independence from parliament, the ability to appoint and dismiss officials at various levels, was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and pursued foreign policy).

December 10, 1848. - President elections. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I's nephew) wins them. He was an ardent monarchist and began to purge the state apparatus:

1) he fired all the republicans, replacing them with monarchists.

2) On May 13, 1849, elections to the legislative assembly were held. According to their results, 2/3 of the seats in parliament were taken by representatives of the party of order (monarchist groups - Bonapartists, Orleanists, Legitimists). They differed only in who would then be the emperor of France. The Legitimists supported the Bourbons, the Orleanists supported the Orleans dynasty, the Bonapartists supported the descendants of Napoleon I.

Louis Bonaparte began to pursue a conservative policy. On March 15, 1850, a law was passed under which secular education was transferred under the control of Catholic priests. On May 31, 1850, a law was passed that limited the circle of voters. The number of voters has decreased from 9 million to 3 million.

Gradually, Louis-Napoleon brings his supporters, the Bonapartists, into power and, with their help, begins to prepare a coup with the aim of restoring the monarchy.

In January 1852, a law was passed extending presidential powers to 10 years . December 2, 1852 it is announced that the republic is overthrown, the monarchy is restored, France is now the 2nd empire, that Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

By the middle of the XIX century. capitalist forms of production already played a leading role in the economy, but their further development was held back in many countries by various feudal barriers, the dominance of large landowners, state fragmentation, and national oppression. Capitalism also gave rise to a new antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the working class. There was a growing crisis in the policy of the ruling circles. In 1848 - 1849. revolutionary events took on a pan-European character. All of Europe was engulfed in revolutionary fire.

The main cause of the revolution in France was the dissatisfaction of the industrial bourgeoisie with the domination of the financial aristocracy. The middle and petty bourgeoisie, which the bankers did not allow to power, sought to establish a republic. The economic crisis of 1847 contributed to a reduction in production, a decrease in wages, and an increase in unemployment, which caused discontent among the lower classes of French society.

On February 24, 1848, an uprising broke out in Paris, during which the monarchy was overthrown and France, under pressure from the people, was declared a republic on February 25. The provisional government, formed from liberals and republicans, abolished titles of nobility, declared freedom of speech, press, assembly, introduced universal suffrage for men over 21 years old. To appease the unemployed, it organized "national workshops" to carry out earthworks, clear and paving streets, and plant trees. To cover expenses; Associated with the organization of public works, the tax on the peasantry was increased by 45%.

On April 23, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held, in which the moderate Republicans won a landslide victory. A large number of deputies belonged to the intelligentsia - lawyers, doctors, journalists. The government that was formed issued a decree on June 22 to dissolve the "national workshops" which had been attacked by bourgeois circles. All unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 25 who worked in the workshops had to join the army, the rest had to go to land work in the provinces. These measures led to an uprising of the workers of Paris. Up to 500 barricades were built, 40-45 thousand workers defended them. The fighting continued from 23 to 26 June. Against the insurgent workers, the government threw an army of 80,000, mobiles, bourgeois detachments of the national guard, a total of 150,000 people. Paris was declared in a state of siege, and all power was transferred to General Cavaignac. Artillery was used to suppress the workers. About 11 thousand rebels were killed or shot on the spot, 25 thousand were arrested, 3.5 thousand were exiled to hard labor.
The uprising of the workers frightened the French bourgeoisie. She launched an offensive against the democratic gains of the revolution, deciding to transfer power to the president, endowed with enormous powers. In December 1848, the nephew of Napoleon I, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, was elected president, who was voted by the monarchist-minded bourgeois circles and the peasantry, who naively believed that the nephew of Napoleon I would protect the interests of small landowners. On December 2, 1851, Louis Bonaparte carried out a coup d'état, dissolving the legislative assembly and declaring himself emperor. The monarchy was restored in France. The revolution of 1848 failed because it did not lead to the establishment of a republic.

REVOLUTION OF 1848

In 1847, an economic crisis broke out in the country. The previous summer, first a drought, then heavy rains, destroyed a significant part of the crop. The following year, potatoes, the staple food of many ordinary people, were badly affected by the disease. The majority of the population spent money on the sharply risen in price of bread; there was no money left for the purchase of industrial goods. Food prices also rose because there was a ban on the import of grain from abroad.

But the industry has its own problems. The railroad boom created speculation that drove up the cost of transportation. This hit many industries, especially metallurgy. As a result, the bankruptcy of enterprises, mass layoffs created the conditions for the first systemic crisis of capitalism.

General discontent made the political situation more tense. In working, student, and intellectual circles, socialist ideas became more and more popular: the government and the economic liberalism pursued by it were blamed for all the troubles. The bourgeoisie demanded more and more urgently the expansion of voting rights.

As rallies and gatherings were banned, opposition activists adopted the "banquet tactic". Throughout France, crowded feasts were held in the bourgeois environment, during which political speeches and toasts were heard. Those who gathered demanded the right to vote for all members of the National Guard and people with higher education, as well as the exclusion from the chamber of civil servants.

February 22, 1848, was a festive day, and a large banquet was scheduled in Paris with the participation of many deputies and commanders of the national guard. However, Prime Minister Guizot, irritated and misjudging the situation, banned such events the day before. And that was enough.

By the evening of February 22, crowds of excited people began to gather in some quarters adjacent to the central ones, and several barricades were built. The next morning, workers and students moved to the western, aristocratic part of the city, demanding the resignation of Guizot and his cabinet. Some of the protesters were armed. The government tried to restore order with the help of the national guards, but those, most of them dissatisfied bourgeois, acted reluctantly. Many joined the demonstrators.

Louis Philippe made concessions. Guizot was suspended. People did not disperse, but their mood began to change, perhaps the matter would have ended in peace - many retained sympathy for their good-natured and sociable king. But an incident occurred: infantry guards guarding the building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs suddenly opened fire on the demonstrators. Several people were killed. Who ordered the shooting remained unclear.

This tragic event sealed the fate of King Louis Philippe. The bodies of the dead began to be carried along all the streets, they were accompanied by many angry people, shouts and calls “to arms!” were heard. From the bell tower of the church of Saint-Germain-aux-Pres, the alarm rang out. Barricades appeared everywhere.

Louis Philippe decided to act by force. But when on the morning of February 24 he began to go around the line of his alleged defenders, the soldiers in response to the royal greeting were sullenly silent, and the national guards shouted the same slogans as the rebels.

The sovereign, discouraged, returned to his quarters. The journalist Emile Girardin, who was with him, was the first to suggest that he abdicate. His words were picked up by others close to him. Louis Philippe realized that there was no other way out. But, wanting to keep the throne for the House of Orleans, he abdicated in favor of his grandson. Then he dressed himself in simple clothes, got into a hired carriage and, accompanied by a squadron of cuirassiers, went to Saint-Cloud.

When the text of the renunciation was delivered to the Chamber of Deputies, crowds of people had already burst into it. Some of those present fled. The rest, among them Lamartine, declared themselves supporters of the republic. The preservation of the monarchy was out of the question. Immediately a list of the provisional government was drawn up. They went with him to the building of the town hall, where the leaders of the people's performance were. There the mood was more radical, so the composition of the provisional government was supplemented by the socialist Louis Blanc and the democratic politician Ledru-Rollin. Radical Republicans wanted to add other supporters of revolutionary change, but the moderates did not support them.

The king and his family left for England. There, the exiles were assisted by a relative, the Belgian King Leopold I. He provided them with his castle of Clermont, where Louis-Philippe died in August 1850 at the age of 77.

Alphonse Lamartine, not only a politician, but also a famous romantic poet, stood at the head of the government. He and his supporters took a moderate position: they considered it necessary to introduce universal suffrage (under "all", of course, adult men were understood), but not to affect property rights and labor-capital relations.

The leftists called themselves the "party of the social republic" and made the red flag their symbol. One of their leaders, Ledru-Rollin, who entered the government, dreamed of a revival of the Jacobin system with plenipotentiary revolutionary commissars in the provinces. Such revolutionary romance could have an effect on someone, but Ledru-Rollin did not have a specific program for social reconstruction. The socialist Louis Blanc, on the other hand, was at least now ready to embark on the "organization of labor", that is, on socialist reforms.

The government was taken over by the moderates. Universal suffrage was introduced. Lamartine addressed all European governments with a reassuring statement: France is not going to export its revolution anywhere. But calm down, do not calm down - dangerous fermentation swept many countries, and soon a pan-European fire broke out (God had mercy on Russia - she had Nicholas I). Nevertheless, France really did not help anyone - revolutions were suppressed everywhere.

The workers, who left their weapons with them just in case and organized their own national guard, were guaranteed the right to work - the state undertook to provide everyone with the opportunity to earn money. A "commission for the workers" was created, headed by Louis Blanc, to solve their problems. Workers' deputies took part in its work. The commission reduced the length of the working day, proposed the introduction of an arbitration court to resolve disputes between employers and employees.

But less than two months later, the situation escalated again. The radicals put forward more and more new demands, the moderates answered that the government had already gone too far. When the workers' guards came to the town hall to declare the need for "the destruction of the exploitation of man by man and the organization of labor in the form of associations" - they were met by "shaggy hats", as the members of the traditional bourgeois national guard were called. They shouted their slogan: "Down with the communists!" Things did not come to bloodshed, but the Minister of the Interior, Ledru-Rollin, who had recently dreamed of the Jacobin order, went over to the positions of the moderate bourgeoisie.

The government decided to organize "national workshops" - that is, to take on public works the needy unemployed. In the conditions of the economic crisis, there were more of them day by day, and in search of a piece of bread they all arrived and arrived from the provinces to Paris.

No one was going to look for them a job in their specialty, they were all en masse sent to digging work on the Field of Mars - in fact, no one needed them. When there were 6,000 poor fellows, they were paid 2 francs a day. But when 100 thousand people fled, the fee was reduced to 1 franc. However, the government did not have enough money for such a handout, and it was forced to introduce a surcharge "for national workshops" to existing taxes.

The peasants, who constituted the majority of the population, took this measure not only with displeasure - they became hostile to both the government and the republic. The rural people managed to become imbued with fear of socialist ideas (of course, knowing about them only by hearsay or thanks to the explanations of their priests), and feared that the peasant fields would be “socialized”. Therefore, when the elections to the Constituent Assembly were held, there were many conservatives there - supporters of the two overthrown dynasties and clerics. The majority were moderate Republicans.

The revolutionaries, the utopian communist Blanqui and the socialist Barbès, organized an attempt by a crowd of their supporters (many political emigrants joined them) to invade the assembly hall in order to proclaim their provisional government, but the “shaggy hats” repelled the attack.

The Constituent Assembly decided to close the "national workshops", inviting the unemployed to join the army or go to dig the earth in the provinces. The workers, who had a lot of weapons in their hands, responded with an uprising. The common people's quarters of Paris were covered with barricades.

The assembly put General Eugene Cavaignac at the head of the available troops and endowed him with emergency powers. The bourgeois national guard joined the army units, detachments of the bourgeoisie continuously arrived from the suburbs and neighboring cities. For four days (June 22-25, 1848) fierce battles continued, in which about 10 thousand people died on both sides.

Cavaignac, who attacked the workers' quarters according to all the rules of military art, achieved victory. Next - the massacre of the vanquished in the worst traditions of civil wars. The prisoners were shot, the captured leaders of the uprising were sent to hard labor in Cayenne (French Guiana). Louis Blanc managed to escape abroad. All socialist newspapers were closed.

The Constitution of 1848, adopted by the Constituent Assembly, began with the words: "In the face of God and in the name of the French people." Then it was said about love for the fatherland and fraternal mutual assistance. But this constitution did not guarantee the right to work, its authors limited themselves to vague provisions on helping the poor to the extent possible. It also introduced the post of president, elected by popular vote. The president was endowed with full executive power. He was the commander-in-chief, he could appoint ministers at will. In conditions when power in the departments belonged not to local elected bodies, but to officials, under certain circumstances, the president could well turn into a dictator.

In the presidential election, moderate Republicans nominated General Cavaignac as their candidate. But, contrary to expectations, he did not win. With a huge majority (5.5 million votes against 1.5 million), the nephew of the great emperor, Louis Bonaparte, became president.

His father was Napoleon's brother Louis, who at one time held the position of the Dutch king, but was abolished for sabotaging the continental blockade. Louis' mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, stepdaughter of the emperor (Josephine's daughter from her first marriage). In 1810, the parents separated, and the two-year-old baby stayed with his mother.

Under the Bourbons, all Bonapartes emigrated or were sent into exile. Louis studied in Bavaria - first at the gymnasium, then at the military school. His further fate is full of fascinating changes. He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari, who fought to liberate northern Italy from Austrian rule, and narrowly escaped arrest.

In 1832, mother and son returned to France, where they were favorably received by King Louis Philippe. In July of the same year, after the death of the emperor's son ("Napoleon II"), the young man became the head of the Bonaparte house.

For some time he served as a captain in Switzerland. And in 1836, with a small number of associates, he tried to raise the garrison of Strasbourg in northern France to revolt. The conspirators expected that the soldiers, as soon as they saw the great uncle's nephew, would immediately move under his leadership to Paris - to put him on the throne. Some people were really enthusiastic, but the matter ended in arrest. Louis Philippe treated the troublemaker good-naturedly, handed him 15 thousand francs and sent him to New York.

In America, Louis Bonaparte did not stay long. He moved to England, where he led a lifestyle befitting a gentleman, and became an avid hunter. But when in 1840 the body of Emperor Napoleon, at the request of King Louis Philippe, was taken to France and reburied in the cathedral of Les Invalides, when Bonapartist sentiments intensified in this regard, the exile started a new adventure.

Having landed in Boulogne with a small detachment, he, exactly following the scenario four years ago, appeared before the soldiers of an infantry regiment in all the regalia of the Napoleonic era. Someone began to enthusiastically greet him, someone tried to arrest him. Louis fired his pistol, but wounded his own supporter. The conspirators were forced to retreat, and were soon detained. This time the king was really angry: the head of the Bonaparte house was sentenced to life imprisonment in the fortress.

There he wrote pamphlets (rather informative) on socio-political topics and somehow became the father of two children. In 1846 he managed to escape. The fortress was undergoing repairs, and the noble prisoner, having carefully studied the characteristic habits of the workers, once shaved off his mustache and beard, changed into a blouse - and that was it. Soon he was in Belgium, then again in England.

He returned to France in 1848 - but again not without incident. First, after the February revolution, the provisional government expelled him. And only in September it was finally possible to firmly stand on their native land (according to rumors, when landing over Louis Bonaparte, a hand-held eagle soared).

On her, in her native land, the situation by that time had changed significantly. Both the people, whose needs were no longer interested, and the bourgeoisie, which once again began to dream of a strong hand, became disillusioned with the moderate Republicans. Which, as many well remembered, the uncle of the returned Bonaparte possessed. Louis also for some time preferred to be called additionally Napoleon, so that his full name was now Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.

First, Louis Napoleon won the elections to the Constituent Assembly. And in October 1848 he entered the struggle for the presidency and, as we have seen, defeated General Cavaignac with a devastating score.

Having taken office, he immediately came into conflict with the assembly, forming a government of representatives of the conservative parties - despite the fact that they were in the minority there. And in the summer of 1849, against the will of the deputies, he sent troops to Rome to help the pope in the fight against the revolutionaries (unlike his uncle, Louis Bonaparte was always a zealous Catholic). The head of the Republicans, Ledru-Rollin, demanded a trial of the president, his more radical colleagues appealed to the people to defend freedom. But the President declared a state of siege and closed the newspapers of his opponents. So far, the matter was limited to this - the parties calmed down and began to coexist further.

But in the National Assembly, which replaced the Constituent Assembly, the monarchists were in the majority. And then Louis Bonaparte, according to one of the newspapers, “led the Roman expedition inward”: the clerics (the Catholic party) achieved “freedom of teaching”, that is, the transfer of schools into their hands. Radical social and political ideas managed to catch up with fear in respectable people. Even the democrat Thiers began to adhere to the opinion that "only a catechism can save from socialism." At the same time, the bill on universal free education was failed. During its discussion, the Minister of Education called non-clerical school teachers "officials of the socialist republic." Spiritual orders, including the Jesuit, were now free to open their educational institutions. Soon there were many Catholic schools in France, and the education of girls was almost completely transferred to the convents.

Then it came to the revision of the electoral law. “You can’t leave the decision of state affairs in the hands of a vile crowd” - another thoughtful statement by Thiers. According to the law of 1850, people who had not lived in one place for three years lost their right to vote. And those were many workers who were forced to constantly move around the country in search of work. Convicted for insulting the authorities, for participation in secret societies were also removed from the elections. In general, the number of voters decreased by 3 million.

Louis Napoleon purposefully gained popularity in the army, led his supporters to the most important government posts. When he visited various departments of the country, faithful people organized manifestations, from the ranks of which enthusiastic cries were heard: "Long live the emperor!"

There was one difficulty: the constitution did not allow holding the presidency for two consecutive terms. When the assembly raised the issue of lifting the restriction, it did not agree. Or rather, there was not a sufficient majority necessary to amend the constitution. Then Louis Napoleon took up the already familiar business - he began to prepare a coup. Only now it was not the old childish antics.

Late in the evening on December 1, 1851, the gendarmes occupied the state printing house. By morning, a proclamation had been printed there in many copies, which was immediately distributed throughout Paris. It was brought to the attention of the population that the National Assembly had been dissolved as a "nest of conspiracies", that from now on all citizens were allowed to take part in the elections without any qualifications, and that a draft of a new constitution was being prepared. 80 deputies were detained and expelled from the capital, who could have any active opposition to the coup - among them Thiers and Cavaignac.

Nevertheless, a few radical deputies, who had been overlooked, began to bypass the suburbs, calling on the people to the barricades. But there were few hunters. "We should fight for your 25 francs!" - said one worker to Deputy Bodin (25 francs was the deputy daily allowance). Boden died in a skirmish a few hours later: units loyal to Louis Napoleon, dispersed throughout the city, just opened fire of such density that it did not correspond to the resistance offered.

On the ground there were cases of speeches under the red banners. It was the rural poor, artisans, petty officials who rose up - people who were part of the long-established secret societies, whose members had a chronic hostility to the authorities, large (if not all) owners, tax collectors. Although quite a few of them took up arms, a state of siege was introduced in many departments. The prefects, as one, were on the side of the new Napoleon, and the movement was quickly crushed.

In total, about 30 thousand people were arrested across the country. Of these, 3 thousand were sentenced to imprisonment, 10 thousand were deported from the country, 250 of the most dangerous were exiled to Guiana. Victor Hugo had to move to the islands belonging to England near the Norman coast - he spent 20 years in exile. His fault was that he had the courage to declare, speaking in the chamber: “Louis Napoleon Bonaparte violated the constitution on which he swore. He placed himself outside the law."

Before the end of the year, they managed to hold a referendum. 7.5 million French people agreed that their president should remain in office for another term, there were 10 times less against.

On January 14, 1852, a new constitution was promulgated. Louis Napoleon was endowed with such powers that he essentially turned into a dictator. The place of the National Assembly was taken by the Legislative Corps - a body, although elected, but, contrary to the name, had the right not to propose laws, but only to discuss them. He was also endowed with very limited powers to control the budget. The Senate became a much more effective governing body, but its composition directly or indirectly depended on the will of the President. One of their first decisions, the senators appointed the president an annual allowance of 12 million francs, which was good news for the bankers who financed the events described above.

Not only the press, but the theater as well, now lived in fear of being persecuted by the police for disloyalty. Within the framework of the Ministry of Police, a wide network of agents was created to monitor all suspicious and the mood of society in general. Filers, recruited for the most part from Corsicans, poke their noses into the most intimate aspects of people's lives.

At the same time, Louis Napoleon tried to enlist the sympathy of the workers. This was not a purely tactical political move: the pamphlets written by him in his youth contained, albeit in an unclear form, socialist ideas. An insurance fund was established to support elderly workers. Later, a similar cash desk appeared for the families of the dead. And towards the end of his reign, Louis Napoleon was considering the introduction of compulsory general insurance for workers.

This text is an introductory piece.

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Revolution of 1848 in France- bourgeois-democratic revolution in France, one of the European revolutions of 1848-1849. The tasks of the revolution were the establishment of civil rights and freedoms. It resulted on February 24 in the abdication of the once liberal king Louis Philippe I and the proclamation of the Second Republic. In the further course of the revolution, after the suppression of the social revolutionary uprising in June 1848, Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president of the new state.

Pan-European Context of the February Revolution

The events in France became the spark that ignited the liberal uprisings in many states of Europe, especially in the countries of the German Confederation, known as the Revolution of 1848-1849 in Germany. All of them had a pan-European dimension and shared bourgeois-liberal goals. To all these revolutions, including the revolution in France, one can apply the collective name of the Revolution of 1848-1849, without losing sight of the fact that in individual countries these events developed differently and had different consequences.

Prerequisites

Louis-Philippe came to power in the year during the bourgeois-liberal July Revolution, which overthrew the reactionary Bourbon regime in the person of Charles X. The eighteen years of the reign of Louis Philippe (the so-called July Monarchy) were characterized by a gradual departure from the ideas of liberalism, more frequent scandals and increasing corruption. Ultimately, Louis-Philippe joined the Holy Alliance of the Monarchs of Russia, Austria-Hungary and Prussia. The purpose of this alliance, based on the Congress of Vienna, was to restore the order in Europe that had existed before the French Revolution of 1789. This was expressed primarily in the renewed dominance of the nobility and the return of its privileges.

The beginning of the revolution

The reason for the mass outburst of indignation was given by the authorities themselves. In those years, in France, as in England, there was a movement for electoral reform. In France it is called reformist banquets. In order to propagate reforms, and at the same time circumvent the strict prohibitions of unions and meetings, first in Paris, and then in large provincial cities, wealthy participants in the reform movement held public banquets. The worn-out speeches spoke loudly of reform projects and, at times, sharply criticized the government. About 50 such banquets took place from July to February. The irritated head of the Guizot government on February 21, 1848, banned the next banquet scheduled in the capital. At the same time, he warned the organizers in harsh tones that in case of disobedience, he would use force. In response, unrest began in Paris, which by the evening had assumed the scale of a revolution.

Not wanting to tempt fate, Louis-Philippe did just that, having previously abdicated in favor of his grandson Henry, Count of Paris, before leaving. But this categorically did not suit the rebels. As soon as on February 25 they became aware of the intention of the Chamber of Deputies to proclaim Henry King, a crowd of rebels burst directly into the meeting of the Chamber. At gunpoint, the deputies proclaimed France a republic and formed a new radical bourgeois government.

Shortly after the proclamation of the republic, universal suffrage was introduced for men over the age of 21. At that moment, no country in the world had such a wide right to vote, not even in England, which considered itself the birthplace of democratic freedoms. Another important measure of the new government was the opening of the National Workshops for the unemployed, where they received a small - 2 francs a day - but guaranteed pay. Although workshops were introduced only in a few large cities, soon more than 100 thousand people worked in them. The main tasks of the revolution were completed. The population received broad political rights and civil liberties, the unemployed were employed in road and earthworks, improved houses and city streets. The radicals used the large crowds of people in the workshops to conduct revolutionary propaganda there.

June Uprising 23-26 June 1848

The maintenance of the National Workshops, which at first cost the government 150 thousand francs a day, required more and more expenses, as the number of people working in them constantly grew. I had to reduce the pay to 1.5 francs a day, and then reduce the number of working days to two per week. For the remaining five days, workshop workers received a franc. But even this was unbearable for the treasury, and the efficiency of the workshops became lower and lower. In the end, on June 21, at the initiative of the government, the Constituent Assembly dissolved the National Workshops. Single men aged 18-25 were invited to join the army, the rest - to go to earthworks in the provinces. However, the unemployed did not want to leave the capital.

On June 23-26, riots broke out in Paris, which developed into an uprising. To suppress it, troops had to be brought into the city, again covered with barricades. They were led by the Minister of War, General Louis-Eugène Cavaignac. Cavaignac tried to calm the rebels, to convince them that the radicals are "our and your enemies." He called: "Come to us as repentant brothers, obedient to the law. The Republic is always ready to embrace you!"

The June uprising had no specific goal, except for the demands to reopen the National Workshops, to release the radicals arrested on May 15, to establish a "democratic and social republic." It was a senseless crowd riot, caused by a number of reasons: the low standard of living of workers, unemployment, the closure of workshops, etc. Most of the members of the future government were in prison, and the armed struggle was led by "foremen" and "delegates" of national workshops, leaders of political clubs , commanders of the National Guard.

Nevertheless, the unrest did not stop, and Cavaignac gave the order to suppress the uprising. During the capture of the working suburbs of Saint-Antoine and La Temple - the strongholds of the rebels - several thousand people died.

Establishment of the Second Republic

As a result of the June explosion, the bourgeois-democratic transformations initiated by the provisional government were suspended. The authorities were forced to shut down radical newspapers, clubs and societies. But universal suffrage was preserved, and this made it possible to hold a popular election in December 1848. It was expected that the main struggle would unfold between the candidates of the big bourgeoisie Cavaignac and the petty bourgeoisie Ledru-Rollin. But unexpectedly, the vast majority of voters voted for Napoleon's nephew, the forty-year-old Prince Louis Bonaparte. He was supported mainly by peasants, workers, urban lower classes and part of the petty bourgeoisie, since they associated the past and future greatness of the country with his name of Napoleon and hoped that the new president would show the same attention to the needs of ordinary Frenchmen as his famous uncle.