The evolution of the PC: from inception to mass production

It is simply impossible to imagine modern life without a computer today. Just some 10-12 years ago, not everyone could afford the “miracle” of modern electronics. We are going to trace the evolutionary development of personal computers, as well as identify the key stages in the transition of the PC from the category of "to whom the means allow" to the category of "publicly available". In the historical development of computer technology, only eight names of people who have made the greatest contribution to the main evolutionary stages of PC production are noted. For several decades, electronics not only overtook, but also largely replaced mechanics. Not just evolutionary, but revolutionary steps were taken to ensure that in less than a century society was so "addicted" to computers.

Instead of a preface

Perhaps it is simply impossible to imagine modern life without a computer today. And just a dozen years ago, not everyone could afford the “miracle” of modern electronics. I remember how I had to sit in the library over books, copying the necessary notes into a summary. And those creepy handwritten essays, the callus on the middle finger of the right hand...

Unlike the German computer, where relays were the basis, in ENIAC most of the elements were vacuum tubes. It was a real monster, worth almost 500 thousand dollars, occupying an entire room. The device weighed 27 tons, the total number of components: about 17.5 thousand lamps of various types, 7.2 thousand silicon diodes, 1.5 thousand relays, 70 thousand resistors and 10 thousand capacitors. The machine required a power supply of 174 kW. Computing power - 357 multiplication operations or 5 thousand addition operations per second. Basics of calculation - decimal system. The computer easily worked with numbers up to 20 digits long.

Despite its computational superiority, ENIAC had a lot of shortcomings. For example, if at least one lamp burned out, the entire computer completely failed. The process of programming a computer was also lengthy: it took several minutes to solve a problem, while entering data could take several days.

ENIAC was never widely used, the device was produced in a single copy and was not used anywhere in the future. But some of the principles that were based on the design of ENIAC subsequently found their reflection in more advanced models of electronic computers.

"Made in USSR"

In 1951, a small electronic calculating machine, MESM, was created on the territory of the Ukrainian SSR. It contained 6,000 electron tubes and barely fit in the left wing of the hostel building in the former monastic village of Feofaniya (10 km from Kyiv). MESM was created in the laboratory of computer technology of the Institute of Electrical Engineering of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR under the leadership of Academician S.A. Lebedev.

Lebedev's thoughts on creating a computer with superpowers appeared in the 1930s, when the young scientist was engaged in research on the stability of energy systems. But the wars that broke out in the 1940s forced all undertakings to be abandoned for a while.

In 1948, Lebedev, together with a group of engineers, moved to Feofaniya (one of the departments of the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR) and began a three-year work on the implementation of a secret project to create the first domestic computer.

“The car occupied a room of 60 square meters. MESM worked at an unprecedented speed for those times - 3 thousand operations per minute (modern computers perform millions of operations per second) and could perform operations on subtraction, addition, multiplication, division, shifts, comparison with sign, comparison in absolute value, transfer of control , transferring numbers from a magnetic drum, adding commands. The total power of electronic lamps is 25 kW.

After a series of tests, S.A. Lebedev proved that his machine is "smarter than a man." This was followed by a series of public demonstrations and the conclusion of the expert commission on the introduction of the MESM into operation (December 1951).

MESM was practically the only computer in the country that solved various scientific and technical problems in the field of thermonuclear processes, space flights and rocket technology, long-distance power lines, mechanics, and statistical quality control. One of the most important problems solved at the MESM was the calculation of the stability of the parallel operation of the units of the Kuibyshev hydroelectric power plant, determined by a system of nonlinear differential equations of the second order. It was necessary to determine the conditions under which the maximum possible power can be transmitted to Moscow without violating the stability of the system. In connection with the rapid development of jet and rocket technology, the machine was tasked with calculating external ballistics of varying complexity, ranging from relatively simple multivariate calculations of trajectories passing within the earth's atmosphere with a slight height difference to very complex ones associated with the flight of objects outside the earth's atmosphere .

MESM was used in many research projects right up to 1957, after which the car was dismantled and taken apart. The equipment was delivered to the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute for laboratory work.

The first computers with data storage capability

As mentioned earlier, some of the first electronic computing systems became prototypes for the creation of more advanced computerized devices. The main task of the developers of new computers was associated with giving machines the ability to store processed and received data in electronic memory.

One of these cars is called The Manchester Baby. In 1948, at the University of Manchester (Great Britain), an electronic computing device capable of storing data in internal RAM was developed, and a year later put into operation. The Manchester "Mark 1" was an improved version of the Neumann computer.

The device could not only read information from punched tapes, but also had the ability to input / output data from a magnetic drum right while the program was running. The "memory" system was a chain of Williams cathode ray tubes (patent development in 1946).

The “Manchester child” had completely “not childish” dimensions: 17 m in length. The system was represented by 75 thousand vacuum tubes, 3 thousand mechanical relays, 4 Williams tubes (computer memory 96 40-bit words), a magnetic drum (1024-4096 40-bit words), a processor for 30 instructions and a battery system. For the simplest mathematical operations, the machine needed from 3 to 12 seconds.

In 1951, the "Child" was disposed of, and a full-fledged commercial computer Ferranti Mark 1 "came" in its place.

Around the same period in Cambridge (UK), a group of engineers led by Maurice Wilks creates a computer with a stored program in memory - EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer). This device becomes the first widely used electronic computing device with internal memory capabilities.

Nearly 3,000 vacuum tubes were used in the computer. The main memory of the computer is 1024 memory cells: 32 mercury ultrasonic delay lines (RULZ), each of which stored 32 words of 17 bits, including the sign bit. It was possible to include additional delay lines, which made it possible to work with words of 35 bits. Calculations were made in the binary system at a speed of 100 to 15 thousand operations per second. Power consumption - 12 kW, occupied surface area - 20 square meters.

In 1953, under the leadership of Wilkes and Renwick, work began on the second computer model, the EDSAC-2. Elements on ferrite cores have already been used as RAM (random access memory), with a total capacity of 1024 words. ROM (Read Only Memory) appeared in the new machine - first on a diode, and then on a ferrite matrix. But the main innovation was the use of microprogram control: some of the instructions could be composed of a set of micro-operations; microprograms were written in permanent memory. This computer was used until 1965.

"transistor" history

The beginning of the era of computers "for life" is associated with the same IBM. After the change of leadership in 1956, the company also changes its production vector. In 1957, IBM introduces the FORTRAN ("FORmula TRANslation") language, which was used for scientific computing. In 1959, the first IBM computers on transistors appeared, reaching such a level of reliability and speed that they began to be used by the military in air defense early warning systems. In 1964, the entire IBM System/360 family was introduced. They became: the first designed family of computers, the first mainframe computers, the first computers with byte-addressed memory (the list of primacy does not end there). System/360 compatible IBM System z computers are still being produced, this is an absolute compatibility record.

The evolutionary development of computer technology included: a reduction in size, a transition to more advanced components, an increase in computing power, an increase in the amount of RAM and permanent storage, the possibility of widespread use in various industries, as well as the possibility of personalizing a computer.

In the 50s and 60s of the 20th century, transistor computers came to replace lamp computers. Semiconductor diodes and transistors are used as the main element, magnetic cores and magnetic drums (distant ancestors of modern hard drives) are used as memory devices. The second difference between these computers: the possibility of programming in algorithmic languages. The first high-level languages ​​(Fortran, Algol, Cobol) were developed. These two important improvements have greatly simplified and accelerated the writing of programs for computers. Programming, while remaining a science, is becoming more applied. All this led to a reduction in size and a significant reduction in the cost of computers, which then were first built for sale.

The production capacity of these computers is up to 30,000 operations per second. The amount of RAM is 32 Kb. The big advantages are reduced dimensions and reduced energy consumption. Programming transistor computers becomes the basis for the emergence of so-called "operating systems". It becomes easier to work with the device, which is possible not only for scientists, but also for less “advanced” users. Computer equipment appears in factories, in offices (mainly in accounting).

Among the transistor electronic computing devices of this period, the most famous are:

Early 50s. The most powerful computer in Europe is the Soviet M-20 with an average speed of 20 thousand 3-address instructions per second over 45-bit floating-point numbers; its RAM was implemented on ferrite cores and had a volume of 4096 words.

1954-1957. Firm NCR (USA) produces the first computer on transistors - NCR-304;

1955 The transistorized computer from Bell Telephone Laboratories, TRADIS, contains 800 individual transistor elements;

1958 NEC Corporation develops the first Japanese computer NEC-1101 and 1102;

Note that these are not the only representatives of the "transistor" history in the evolution of computers. During this period, developments were carried out at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA), in many scientific and technical laboratories throughout the Soviet Union, and in leading European research and technological higher schools.

Microchips and mass production

It took only a few years for developers to produce a computer with new components. Just as transistors replaced vacuum tubes (and they replaced mechanical relays), so microcircuits took their evolutionary cell. The end of the 60s of the twentieth century brings the following metamorphoses to computers: integrated circuits were developed, consisting of a chain of transistors united under one semiconductor; semiconductor memory appears, which becomes the main element of computer RAM; mastered the method of simultaneous programming of several tasks (the principle of an interactive mode); the central processor can work in parallel and control various peripheral devices; opens the possibility of remote access to computer data.

It was during this period that the "famous" family of IBM computers appeared. The production of electronic computing equipment is being put on a conveyor belt, mass production of computerized equipment is being established.

Of course, there is more to say about the IBM System/360 (S/360). In 1964, the company produces a series of computers of different sizes and functionality. Depending on the requirements, both small machines with low productivity and large machines with higher production rates can be used equally in production. All machines run similar software, so if you have to replace a low-powered device with a more advanced one, then there is no need to rewrite the main program. To ensure compatibility, IBM is the first to use microcode technology, which is used in all models of the series, except for the most senior ones. This series of computers becomes the first derivative when a clear distinction is made between the architecture and implementation of a computer.

The S/360 cost the company $5 billion (a whopping amount by 1964 standards). But this system still does not become the most expensive production, the championship remains with the R&D project. Model 360 is replaced by 370, 390 and System z, but the architecture of the computer is retained in them. On the basis of S / 360, other companies produce their own model series, for example, the Amdahl 470 family, Hitachi mainframes, UNIVAC 9200/9300/940, Soviet machines of the ES computer series, etc.

Thanks to the widespread use of the IBM/360, the 8-bit characters invented for it and the 8-bit byte as the minimum addressable memory cell have become the standard for all computer technology. The IBM/360 was also the first 32-bit computer system. The older models of the IBM/360 family and the subsequent IBM/370 family were among the first computers with virtual memory and the first mass-produced computers to support the implementation of virtual machines. The IBM/360 family was the first to use microcode to implement individual processor instructions.

But some microprocessor systems had one drawback - the low quality of components. This was especially pronounced in Soviet electronic computers. They continued to have significant dimensions and lagged behind Western developments in functionality. To eliminate this, domestic designers had to design special processors to perform private tasks (which excluded the possibility of multiprogramming).

During this period, the first minicomputers (prototypes of modern computers) also appear. The most important thing that happened to the PC in the late 60s and early 70s was the transition from a large number of elements to the use of one piece that combines all the necessary components. Microprocessors are the heart of any computer. Society owes their appearance to Intel. It is she who owns the first microchip, which has become a truly revolutionary and evolutionary leap for computer technology.

Along with the rapid improvement of technical equipment, electronic computing systems are beginning to be combined into local and global computer networks (the prototype of the Internet). The programming language is being improved, more advanced operating systems are being written.

Supercomputers and personal portable electronics

The seventies and eighties become the main period of mass production of computers for general consumption. There were no significant innovations during this period. Electronic computing technology is divided into two camps: supermachines with incredible computing capabilities and more personalized systems. The element base of these systems is large integrated circuits (LSI), where more than a thousand elements are placed in one crystal. The power of such computers is tens of millions of operations per second, the amount of RAM increases to several hundred megabytes.

Computerized computing systems used in production remain complex, but the mass leadership is moving to personal computers. It was during this period that the term "electronic computer" is replaced by the term "computer" familiar to our ears.

The era of personal computers begins with Apple, IBM-PC (XT, AT, PS / 2), Iskra, Electronics, EU-1840, EU-1841 and others. These systems are inferior in functionality to supercomputers, but due to the consumer purpose, the PC is firmly established in the market: the device becomes publicly available, a number of innovations appear that simplify working with the device (graphical user interface, new peripheral devices, global networks).

After the release of the Intel 4004 and Intel 8008 microprocessors, the technology was picked up by other companies: MPs were produced both based on the Intel project and their own modifications.

This is where the young Apple Computer Company of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak enters the arena with their first personal product - the Apple-1 computer. Not many people were interested in the development of ambitious entrepreneurs. There was only one order for a batch of Apple-1 computers: Paul Terrell, owner of the Byte computer store, orders a shipment of 50 units. But the conditions are as follows: these should not be just computer boards, but absolutely complete machines. Overcoming difficulties with financing production, Apple Computer, nevertheless, manages to fulfill its obligations on time, and Apple-1 appears on the shelves of Terrell's store. True, without "ammunition", but only in the form of a fee, but Terrell agrees to the supply and pays the promised $ 500 per unit of goods.

Note that most PCs of that time were supplied as separate components, which were assembled by distributors or end customers.

So, in 1976, the Apple-1 goes on sale for $666.66 apiece. The Apple I was completely assembled on a circuit board containing about 30 chips, which is considered by many to be the first full-fledged PC. But to get a working computer, users had to add a case, power supply, keyboard, and monitor to it. An add-on board, later released for $75, provided communication with a cassette recorder for data storage.

Many experts do not consider the Apple computer to be the first personal electronic device, but call it the Altair 8800 microcomputer, which was created by Ed Robers and distributed through catalogs in 1974-1975. But in fact, this device did not meet all user requirements.

The company continues production, and the updated Apple II model goes on sale. This series of PCs was equipped with a MOS Technology 6502 processor at 1 MHz, 4 KB RAM (expandable to 48 KB), 4 KB ROM, an Integer BASIC monitor and interpreter, and an interface for connecting a cassette recorder. Apple II becomes the most massively sold device on the electrical market (over 5 million units of this product were sold over the years of production). The Apple II looked more like an office tool than a piece of electronic equipment. It was a full-fledged computer that is suitable for a home environment, a manager's desk or a school classroom.

A composite video output in NTSC format was used to connect a monitor (or TV). Computers sold in Europe used an optional PAL encoder located on an expansion board. The sound was provided by a speaker controlled through a register in memory (1 bit used). The computer had 8 expansion connectors, 1 of which allowed you to connect additional RAM, while the rest were used to provide I / O (serial and parallel ports, external device controllers). The initial retail price of the computer was 1298-2638 dollars for a model modification.

Apple II acquires a family and until the early 90s retains its leadership in the computer equipment market.

General PC standard

At the end of 1980, IBM decides to produce its own PC. The supply of microprocessors for future IBM PC models is entrusted to Intel, and the “drop-out” project from Harvard Bill Gates is accepted for the main OS - the PC-DOS operating system.

The company not only sets the production pace, but also sets its own standards for the production of computers. Each PC manufacturer could purchase a license from IBM and assemble similar computers, and microprocessor manufacturers could manufacture elements for them (in fact, only Apple managed to save its own architecture). So there is a model of IBM PC XT with a hard drive. Behind him is the IBM PC AT, built on the basis of the MP 80286.

1985 marked the release of high-performance PCs, Intel and Motorola jointly produce the 80386 and M68020 microprocessors. From year to year, computer modifications are being improved, the names of IBM and Intel are constantly heard. New microprocessors achieve incredible processing power - up to 50 million operations per second. In 1993, Intel releases the Pentium P5 MP with 64-bit architecture, followed by models 2, 3. Pentium 4 is already equipped with HT technology, which allows processing information on 2 parallel streams.

Computers are improving in everything: energy consumption is decreasing, dimensions are decreasing, but computing power is enormously increasing, the amount of RAM is increasing (up to 4 gigabytes), hard drives are measured in terabytes.

Almost all computers manufactured in the world are moving to the new "window" operating system MicroSoft "Windows" and office applications MS-Office. This is how the computer standards of the personal computer are defined: the architecture of the IBM PC and the Windows operating system.

As for the size of the PC, along with stationary computers, portable portable electronics are produced: laptops, netbooks, then tablets and smartphones (phone-computer).

Instead of an afterword

For several decades, personal computers have moved from electronic "calculating machines" into the category of everyday equipment. Now the PC is not just an electronic computing device. This is a whole industry of knowledge, entertainment, work, education and other consumer opportunities.

Mikhail Polyukhovich